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Stereotype Edition 

/ 

/s • * ADAPTED TO THE 

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LEARNERS 



AN APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

RULES AND OBSERVATIONS 

FOR ASSISTING THE MORE ADVANCED STUDENTS TO WRITS 
WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY. 



'* They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy 
and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order.'' 

BJLAIR. 



BY L WD LEY MURR.4Y. 



NEW-YORK: 

. & S. RAYNOR. 
IS'o. 7G Bom ery. 

1S44. 




INTRODUCTION. 



WHEN the number and variety of English Grammars already 
published, and the ability with which some of them are 
writren, are considered, tittle can be expected from a new compi 
lation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and 
some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting- it to the 
understanding, and the gradual progress of learners. In these 
respects something, perhaps, may yet be done, for the ease and 
advantage of young persons. 

In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a medi- 
um to be observed, between treating the subject in so extensive 
and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their minds, 
by offering too much at once for their comprehension ; and, on 
the other hand, conducting it by such short and general precepts 
and observations, as convey to them no clear and precise informa- 
tion. A distribution of tlie parts, which is either defective or ir- 
regular, has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, 
and to retard its knowledge of the princ ; ples of literature. A 
distinct general view, or outline, of all the essential parts of the 
study in which they are engaged ; a gradual and judicious supply 
of this outline ; and a due arrangement of the divisions, accord- 
ing to their natural order and connexion, appear to be among the 
best means of enlightening the minds of youth, and of facilitating 
their acquisition of knowledge. The author of this work, at the 
same time that he has endeavoured to avoid a plan which may be too 
concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in their 
disposition, has studied to render his subject sufficiently easy, in- 
telligible, and comprehensive. He does not presume to have 
completely attained these objects. How far he has succeeded in 
Hie attempt, and wherein he has failed, must be referred to the 
determination of the judicious and candid reader. 

The method which he has adopted, of exhibiting the perform 
ance in characters of different sizes, will, he trusts, be conducive 
to the gradual and regular procedure, which is so favourable to 
the- business of instruction. The more important rules, definitions, 
and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be 
committed to memory, are printed with a larger type ; whilst 
rules and remarks that are of less consequence, that extend or di- 

\ the general idea, or that serve as explanations, are con- 
tained in the smaller letter : these, or the chief of them, will be 
perused by the student to the greatest advantage, if postponed till 
the general system be completed. The use of notes and observa- 
tions, in the common and detached manner, at the bottom of the 

would not, it is imagined, be so^likely to attract the perusal 
of youth, or admit of so ample and regular an illustration, as a 
continued and uniform order of the several subjects. In adopting 
this mode, care has been taken to adjust it so that the vihole may 
do perused in a connected progress, or the part contained in the 
targer character read in order by itself. Many of the notes and 
8fl 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

observations are intended, not only to explain ilie subjects, and 
to illustrate them by comparative views of the grammar of other 
languages, and of the various sentiments of English grammari- 
ans'; but also to invite the ingenious student to inquiry and re- 
flection, and to prompt tu a more enlarged, critical, and philo- 
sophical research. 

With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be im- 
proper more particularly to observe, that in selecting and form- 
ing them, it has been the author's aim to render them as exact 
and comprehensive; and, at the same time, as intelligible to young 
minds, as the nature of the subject, and the difficulties attending 
it, v ould admit. He presumes that they are also calculated to be 
readily committed to memory, and easily retained. For this 
purpose, he has been solicitous to select terms that are smooth 
and voluble ; to proportion the members of the sentences to one 
another ; to avoid protracted periods ; and to give the whole defi- 
nition or rule, as much harmony of expression as he could devise. 

From the sentiment generally admitted, that a proper selec- 
tion of faulty composition is more instructive to the young gram- 
marian, than any rules and examples of propriety that can be 
given, the Compiler has been induced to pay peculiar attention to 
this part of the subject ; and! though the instances of false gram- 
mar, under the rules of Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped they 
v ill not be found too many, when their variety and usefulness are 
considered. 

In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials 
selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to 
apologize for the use which the Compiler has made of his prede- 
cessors' labours ; or for omitting to insert their names. From 
the alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments 
and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the 
particular purposes for which they are introduced ; and, in many 
instances, from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally 
belonged; the insertion of names could seldom be made with pro- 
priety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this 
nature would derive no advantage from it equal to the inconven- 
ience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and refer- 
ences It is, however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, 
that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this compila- 
tion is principally indebted for its materials, are Harris, Johnson, 
Lowth, Priestly, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 

The Rules and Observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. contain- 
ed in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from the 
writings of Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a proper 
addition to the Grammar. The subjects are very nearly related ; 
a«d the study of perspicuity and accuracy in writing, appears nat- 
urally to follow that of Grammar. A competent acquaintance 
with the principles of both, will prepare and qualify the students, 
fn- prosecuting those additional improvements in language, to 
which they may be properly directed. 

On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar, and 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

the principles of Composition, much might be advanced for the 
encouragement of persons in early life to apply themselves to this 
branch of learning ; but as the limits of this Introduction will not 
allow of many observations on the subject, a few leading sentiments 
are all that can be admitted here with propriety. As words are 
the signs of our ideas, and the medium by which we perceive the 
sentiments of others, and communicate our own ; and as signs 
exhibit the things which they ar^kntended to represent, more or 
less accurately, according as thar real or established conformity 
io those things is more or less exact ; it is evident, that in propor 
lion to our knowledge of the nature and properties of words, of 
their relation to each other, and of their established connexion 
with the ideas to which they are applied, will be the certainty and 
ease with which we tranrfuse our sentiments into the minds of one 
another ; and that, without a competent knowledge of this kind, 
we shall frequently be in hazard of misunderstanding others, and 
of being misunderstood ourselves, f It may indeed be justly assert 
ed, that many of the differences in opinion amongst men, with the 
disputes, contentions, ajid, alienations of heart which have too often 
proceeded from such differences, have been occasioned by a want 
of proper skill in the connexion and meaning of words, and by a 
tenacious misapplication of language^ 

AjDne of the best supports which^the recommendation of this study 
caM receive, in small compass., j nay be derive d from the following- 
sentiments <s£_an jmrment ancPcandid writer* on langua ge'and 
coTnposTITbn. ~ u All that f^gixds-^the study of composition, nierits^. 
" the higher attentionxipon this'account, that it is intimately con^~ 
" nected with the improvement of our intellectual powers. For 
" I must be allowed to say, that when we are employed, after a 
" proper manner, in the study of composition, we are cultivating 
" the understanding itself. The study of arranging and express- 
li ing our thoughts with propriety, teaches to think, as well as to 
" speak accurately." 

Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be superfluous 
to observe, that the author of the following work has no interest 
in it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will prove of some 
advantage to young persons, and relieve the labours of those em- 
ployed in their education. He wishes to promote, it; some degree, 
the cause of virtue, as well as of learning ; and, with this view, he 
has been studious, through the whole of the work, not only to 
avoid every example and illustration, which might have an "im- 
proper effect on the minds of youth } but also to introduce, on 
many occasions, such as have a moral and religious tendency. 
His attention to objects of so much importance will, he trusts, 
meet the approbation of every well-disposed reader. If they were 
faithfully regarded in all books of education, they would doubtless 
contribute very materially to the order and happiness of society, 
by guarding the innocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising 
generation. 

Holdgate, near York, 1795. 

* Blair. 
5a A2 



INTRODUCTION. 

ADVERTISEMENT 

TO THE NINTH EDITION. 

The eighth edition of this grammar received considerable alter 
ations and additions : but work^f this nature admit of repeated 
improvements ; and are, perhaW, never complete. The author, 
solicitous to render his book , *Tnore worthy of the encouraging 
approbation bestowed on it by the public, has again revised the 
work with care and attention. The new ed tion, he hopes, will 
be found much improved. The additions, whicL are very con- 
siderable, are, chiefly, such as are calculated to expand the learn- 
er's views of the subject ; to obviate objections; and to render 
the study of grammar both easy and interesting. This edition 
contains also a new and enlarged system of parsing ; copious 
lists of nouns, arranged according to their gender and number ; 
and many notes and observations, which serve to extend, or to 
explain, particular rules and positions.* 

The writer is sensible that, after all his endeavours to elucidate 
the principles of the work, there are few of the divisions, arrange- 
ments, definitions, or rules, (against which critical ingenuity can- 
not devise plausible objections The subject is attended with so 
much intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not 
possible to render every part of it unexceptionable ; or to accom- 
modate the work, in all respects, to the opinions and preposses- 
sions of every grammarian and teacher. If the author has adopt- 
ed that system which, on the whole, is best suited to the nature of 
the subject, and conformable to the sentiments of the most judi- 
cious grammarians ; if his reasonings and illustration*;, respecting 
follicular points, are founded on just principles, and the pecu- 
iarities of the English language ; he has, perhaps, done all that 
could reasonably be ex-pected in a work of this nature ; and he 
may warrantably indulge a hope, that the book will be still more 
extensively approved and circulated. 

* The author conceives that the occasional strictures, dispersed through the 
book, and intended to illustrate and support a number of important grammat- 
ical points, will noi, to youn£ persons of ingenuity, appear to be dry and useless 
discussions. He is persuaded that, by such persons, they will be read with 
attention. And he presumes that these strictures will gratify their curiosity, 
stimulate application, and give solidity and permanence to their grammatical 
knowledge. In the Octavo edition of the grammar, the reader will find many 
additional discujsions of this nature. 

Hcldgate, near York, 1804. 

61 



usrcuLttaat <&miist&uu&« 



Er 



ENGLISH GRAMMArf is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, 'Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

This division may be rendered more intelligible to the stu- 
dent, by observing, in other words, that Grammar treatsjirst, 
of the form and sound of the letters, the combination of let- 
ters into syllables, and syllables into words ; secondly, of the 
different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their 
derivation ; thirdly, of the union and right order of words in 
the formation of a sentence ; and lastly, of the just pronun- 
ciation, and poetical construction of sentences 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY 



CHAPTER I. 
OF THE LETTERS. 



Section 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a perfect 
alphabet. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, 
and the just method of spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the English 
Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain articulate 
sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate 
sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the 
organs of speech. 

7a 







ENGLISH 


GRAMMAR. 




\e following is a I 


'ist of the Roman, 


Italic, and ( 






E> 


iglish Characters. 




Roman. 


Ital 


ic. 


OldEr 


Iglish. 


Name. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 


Cap. 


Small. 




A 


a 


A 


a 


■% 


a 


ai. 


B 


b 


B 


b 


23 


6 


bee. 


c 


c 


C 


c 


€ 


t 


see. 


D 


d 


D 


d 


© 


n 


dee. 


E 


e 


E 


e 


<e 


t 


ee. 


F 


f 


F 


f 


f 


f 


<f. 


G 


g 


G 


g 


<& 


s 


jee. 


H 


h 


H 


h 


® 


& 


aitch. 


I 


i 


I 


i 


SO 


i 


i or eye. 


J 


J 


J 


j 


a 


i 


J a y. 


K 


k 


E 


k 


It 


it 


kay. 


L 


1 


L 


I 


% 


I 


el 


M 


m 


M 


m 


SB 


m 


em. 


N 


n 


JY 


n 


# 


n 


en. 














<© 





0. 


P 


P 


P 


V 


S> 


P 


pee. 


Q 


q 


R 


q 


<a 


il 


cue. 


R 


r 


u 


r 


n 


r 


ar. 


S 


s 


s 


s 


& 


£ 


ess. 


T 


t 


T 


t 


€ 


t 


tee. 


U 


u 


U 


u 


II 


u 


u or you* 


T 


V 


V 


V 


© 


to 


vee. 


W 


w 


w 


w 


1$ 


ta 


double u. 


X 


X 


X 


X 


% 


r 


eks. 


Y 


y 


Y 


y 


i 


p 


wy. 


Z 


z 


z 


% 


^ 


5 


zed. 



8a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, indeed, 
of every other language, would contain a number of letters, 
precisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds be- 
longing to the language. Every simple sound would have 
its distinct character; and that character be the representa- 
tive of no other sound. But this is far from being the state 
of the English alphabet. It has more original sounds than 
distinct significant letters ; and, consequently, some of these 
letters are made to represent, not one sound alone, but sev- 
eral sounds. This will appear by reflecting, that the sounds 
signified by the united letters th, sh, ng, are elementary, and 
have no single appropriate characters, in our alphabet : and 
that the letters a and u represent the different sounds heard 
in hat, hate, hall ; and in but, bull, mule. 

To explain this subject more fully to the learner, we shall 
set down the characters made use of to represent all the ele- 
mentary articulate sounds of our language, as nearly in the 
manner and order of the present English alphabet, as the de- 
sign of the subject will admit ; and shall annex to each charac- 
ter the syllable or word, which contains its proper and distinct 
sound. And here it will be. proper to begin with the vowels. 



tters denoting- the 






Words containing' the 


simple sounds. 






simple sounds. 


a 


as heard in 


fate 


a 


as 


in 


fall 


a - 


as 


in 


fat 


a 


as 


in 


far 


e 


as 


in 


me 


e 


as 


in 


met 


i 


as 


in 


pine 


i 


as 


in 


pin 


o 


as 


in 


no 





as 


in 


not 


o 


as 


in 


move 


U 


as 


in 


mule 


u 


as 


in 


tub 


u 


as 


in 


bull 



By this list it appears, that there are in the English language 
fourteen simple vowel sounds ; but as t and «, when pro- 
nounced long, may be considered as diphthongs, or diph- 
thongal vowels, our language, strictly speaking, contains but 
twelve simple vowel sounds; to represent which, we have 
only five distinct characters or letters, \fa\nfar, is the same 
specific sound as a infai ; and u in bull, the same as o in move, 
which is the opinion of some grammarians : then, there are 
but ten original vowel sounds in the English language. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants 
being in number twenty-two. 



tiers denoting the 






Words containing the 


simple sounds. 






simple sounds. 


b 


as heard in 


bay, tub 


d 


as 


in 


day, sad 


f 


as 


in 


off, for 


V 


as 


in 


van, love 


E- 


as 
as 


in 

in 


fgg. go 
hop, ho 


k 


as 


in 


kill, oak 


1 


as 


in 


lap, all 


m 


as 


in 


my, mum 


n 


as 


in 


no, on 


P 


as 


in 


pin, map 


r 


as 


in 


rap, cry 


s 


as 


in 


so, lass 


z 


as 


in 


zed, buzz 


t 


as 


in 


top, mat 


w 


as 


in 


wo, will 


y 


as 


in 


ye, yes 


ng 


as 


in 


ing, sing 


sh 


as 


in 


shy, ash 


th 


as 


in 


thin, thick 


th 


as 


in 


then, them 


zh 


as 


in 


pleasure 



Several letters marked in the English alphabet, as conso- 
nants, are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, but 
complex sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in both its 
sounds ; the one being expressed by k, and the other by s. 
G, in the soft pronunciation, is not a simple, but a complex 
sound ; as age is pronounced aidge. J is unnecessary, be- 
cause its sound, and that of the soft g, are in our language the 
same. Q, with its attendant u, is^either complex, and re- 
solvable into kw, as in quality ; or unnecessary, because its 
sound is the same with k, as in opaque. Xis compounded of 
gs, as in example ; or oiks, as in expect. 

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point 
of considerable importance, that every learner of the Eng- 
lish language should be taught to pronounce perfectly, and 
with facility, every original simple sound that belongs to it. 
By a timely and judicious care in this respect, the voice will 
be prepared to utter, with ease and accuracy, every combi- 
nation erf sounds ; and taught to avoid that confused* and im- 

* Some grammarians suppose A to mark only an aspiration, or breathing- : 
but it appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by 
the organs of speech. Encyclopaedia Britannka. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

perfect manner of pronouncing words, which accompanies, 
through life, many persons a\ ho have not, in this respect, 
been properly instructed at an early period. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself : as a, e, o ; which are formed without 
the help of any other sound. 

A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as, b, d,f, 
I ; which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, i\ o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, that 
w and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, 
and vowels when they end one. That they are consonants, 
when used as initials, seems to be evident from their not ad- 
mitting the article an before them, as it would be improper 
to say, an walnut, an yard, ^-c. ; and from their following a 
vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance ; as, frosty 
winter, rosy youth. That they are vowels in other situations, 
appears from their regularly taking the sound of other vow- 
els ; as, w has the exact sound of u in saw, few, now, £,-c. 
and y that ofi, in hymn, fly, crystal, c/c. See the letters W 
and Y, Sec. £ * 

We present the following as more exact and philosophical 
definitions of a vowel and consonant. 

A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and 
formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain 
conformation of the mouth, without any alteration in the po- 
sition, or any motion in the organs of speech, from the 
moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends. 

A coisonant is a simple articulate sound, imperfect by 
itself, but which, joined with a vowel, forms a complete sound, 
by a particular motion or contact of the organs of speech. 

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and 
the compound. But there does not appear to be any foun- 
dation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to the 
nature of a vowel, which excludes every degree of mixed or 
compound sounds. It requires, according to the definition, 
but one conformation of the organs cf speech, to form it, and 
no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. 

* The letters w and y, are of an ambiguous nature ; being consonants at 
the beginning' of words, and vowels at the eDd. Encycfopoedia Briians 
WALKER'S Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, paye 24, third edition. 
PERRY's English D'ctionary, Preface, page" 7 
Ha 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 
The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of 
a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
They are/, 7, m, », r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, 7, m, n, r, are also 
distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it were, into 
their sounds. 

We have shown above, that it is essential to the nature 
of a consonant, that it cannot be fuliy uttered without 
the aid of a vowel. We may further observe, that even 
thenames of the consonants, as they are pronounced in re- 
citing the alphabet, require the help of vowels to express 
them. In pronouncing the names of the mutes, the assist- 
ant vowels/oZ/ow the consonants : as, be, pe, te, de, ka. In 
pronouncing thenames of the semi-rowels, the vowels gen- 
erally precede the consonants: as, ef, el, em,+:n, ar, es, ex. 
The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zed. 

This distinction between the nature, and the name of a 
consonant, is of great importance, and should be well ex- 
plained to the pupil. They are frequently confounded by 
writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the 
name, are often applied to explain the nature, of a conso- 
nant : and, by this means, the student is led into error and 
perplexity, respecting these elements of language. It should 
be impressed on his mind, that the name of every conso- 
nant is a complex sound ; but that the consonant itself, is 
always a simple sound. 

Some writers have described the mutes and semi-vowels, 
with their subdivisions, nearly in the following manner. 

The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be 
protracted. The semi-vowels, such whose sounds can be 
continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from 
which they derive their name. 

The mutes may be subdivided into pure and impure. The 
pure are those whose sounds cannot be at all prolonged : 
they are k, p, t. The impure, are those whose sounds may 
be continued, though for a very short space: they are b, d, r* 

The semi-vowels may be subdivided into vocal and aspi- 
rated. The vocal are those which are formed by the voice ; 
the aspirated, those formed by the breath. There are eleven 
vocal, and five aspirated. The toch'1 are I, m, n, r, v, w, 
y, z, th flat, zh, ng : the aspirated, /, h, s, th sharp, s/i. 

The vocal semi-vowels mav be subdivided into pure and 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

impure. The pure are those which are formed entirely by 
the voice : the impure, such as have a mixture of breath 
with the voice. There are seven pure — /, m, n, r, u\ y i 
ng ; four impure — v, z, th flat, zh. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by 
asimple impulse of the voice ; as ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in like manner ; as, eau in beau, lew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded ; as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally 
heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. 
Though this is not the case at present, with respect to many 
of them, thejH combinations still retain the name of diph- 
thongs ; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by the 
term improper* As the diphthong derives its name and nature 
from its sound, and not from its letters, and properly denotes 
a double vowel sound, no union of two vowels, where one is 
silent, can, in strictness, be entitled to that appellation ; and 
the single letters i and u, when pronounced longj, must, in 
this view, be considered as diphthongs. The triphthongs, 
having at most but two sounds, are merely ocular, and are, 
thereiore,by some grammarians, classed with the diphthongs. 

Section 2. General observations on the sounds of the letters. 

A 

A has four sounds ; the long or slender, the broad, the 
short or open, and the middle. 

The long ; as in name, basin, creation. 

The broad ; as in call, wall, all. 

The short ; as in barrel, fancy, glass. 

The middle ; as in far, farm, father. 

The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper 
names ; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. 

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in 
Latin words. Some authors retain this form ; as, renigma, 
equator, S,-c. ; but others have laid it aside, and write enigma, 
Cesar, Eneas, ^c. 

The diphthongal has exactly the long slender sound of a 
as in pail, tail, £>;<"• 5 pronounced pale, tale, §fc. : except plaid, 
again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and a few others. 

Aa is generally sounded like the broad a : as in taught, 
caught, iV<*- Sometimes like the short or open a ;~as in aunt, 

B 13a 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

flaunt, gauntlet, ^'C. It has the sound of long o in hautboy 
and that of o short in laurel, laudanum, fyc. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; as in bawl, scraw,', 
crawl. 

Ay, like its near relation ai, is pronounced like the long 
slender sound of a; as in pay, day, delay. 

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and 
end of words ; as in baker, number, rhubarb, S, : c. 

In some words it is silent ; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, $x. 
In others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syllable ; as in 
climb, comb, tomb. 

C 

C has two different sounds. 

A hard sound like k, before a, o, u, r,l, t ; as in cart, cottage, 
curious, craft, tract, cloth, ^-c. ; and when it ends a syllable ; 
as in victim, flaccid. 

A soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally ; as in 
centre, face, civil, cymbal, mercy, fyc. It has sometimes the 
sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. 

C is mute in czar, czarine, victuals, &c. 

C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, 
never ends a word ; and therefore we find in our best diction- 
aries, stick, block, publick, politick, £/c. But many writers of 
latter years omit the k in words of two or more syllables ; 
and this practice is gaining ground, though it is productive of 
irregularities ; such as writing mimic and mimickry ; traffic 
and trafficking. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tch ; as in church, chin, chaff, 
charter : but in words derived from the Greek, has the 
sound of k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich ; 
and in foreign names ; as, Achish, Baruch, Enoch, fyc. 

Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the 
sound of sh ; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k ; as in arch-angel, 
archives, Archipelago ; except in arched, archery, archer, 
and arch-enemy : but before a consonant it always sounds 
like tch ; as in archbishop, archduke, archpresby ter, ^c. Ch 
is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht. 
D 
D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words • us in aeath, bandage, kindred ; unless it may be said 
to take tb sound of t, in stuffed, tripped, fyc. stuft, tript, fyc. 
E 

E has nree different sounds. 

A long sound ; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley. 

14a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 5 

A short sound ; as in men, bed, clemency. 

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound ; as, open, lucre, 
participle. 

It has sometimes the sound of middle a ; as in clerk, Ser- 
jeant ; and sometimes that of short i ; as in England, yes, pretty. 

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in mono- 
syllables that have no other vowel ; as, me, he, she : or in 
substantives derived from the Greek ; as, catastrophe, epit- 
ome, Penelope. It is used to soften and modify the forego- 
ing consonants ; as, force, rage, since, oblige : or to lengthen 
the pr ce ding vowel ; as, can, cane ; pin, pine ; rob, robe. 

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long ; as in 
appear, beaver, creature, ^-c. It has also the sound of short 
e ; as in breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pro- 
nounced like the long and slender a; as in bear, break, great. 

Eau has the sound of long o ; as in beau, flambeau, port- 
manteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of 
long u. 

Ely in general, sounds the same as long and slender a ; as 
in deign, vein, neighbour, fy"c. It has the sound of long e in 
seize, deceit, receive, either, neither, ^-c. It is sometimes 
pronounced like short i ; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, £,-c. 

Eo is pronounced like e long ; as in people ; and some- 
times like e short ; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the 
sound of short u ; as in dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, $t. 

Eu is always sounded like long u or ew ; as in feud, deuce. 

Ew is almost always pronounced like long u ; as in few, 
new, dew. 

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced like a 
long ; as in bey, grey, convey ; except in key, ley, where it 
is sounded like long e. 

When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of 
c long ; as, alley, valley, barlev. 

F 

F keeps one pure unvaried sound at the beginning, middle, 
and end of words; as, fancy, muffin, mischief, ^'c. : except 
in of, in which it has the flat sound of ov ; but not in com- 
position ; as, whereof, thereof, £>-c. We should not pro- 
nounce, a wive's jointure, a calve's head ; but a wife's join- 
ture, a calf's head. 

G 

G has two sounds : one hard ; as in gay, go, gun : the other 
soft; as in gem, giant. 

At the end of a word it is always hard ; as in bag, snug, 
frog. It is hard before a, o, u, /, and r ; as, game, gone, gull, 
glory, grandeur 

15a 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

G before c, i, and y, is soft ; as in genius, gesture, ginger, 
Egypt j except in get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and some 
others. 

G is mute before n ; as in gnash, sign, foreign, $*c. 

Gn, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the 
preceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, 
impregn, impugned ; pronounced impune, imprene, $-c. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the hard 
g ; as, ghost, ghastly : in the middle, and sometimes at the 
end, it is quite silent ; as in right, high, plough, mighty. 

At the end it has often the sound of f ; as m laugh, cough, 
tough. Sometimes only the g is sounded ; as in burgh, 
burgher. 

H 

The sound signified by this letter, is, as before observed, an 
articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It is heard 
in the words hat, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute at the 
beginning of a word. It is always silent after r ; as, rhet- 
oric, rheum, rhubarb. 

II final, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah ! 
hah ! oh ! fob. ! Sarah, Messiah. 

From the faintness of the sound of this letter, in many 
words, and its total silence in others, added to the negligence 
of tutors, and the inattention of pupils, it has happened, that 
many persons have become almost incapnble of acquiring its 
'ust and full pronunciation. It is, therefore, incumbent on 
teachers, to be particularly careful to inculcate a clear and 
distinct utterance of this sound. 
I 

/has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one ; as in fin. 

The long sound is always marked by the e fina-1 in mono- 
syllables ; as thin, thine ; except give, live. Before r it is 
often sounded like a short u ; as flirt, first. In some words 
it has the sound of e long : as in machine, bombazine, maga- 
zine. 

The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya ; as in 
christian, filial, poniard ; pronounced christ-yan, £, f c. It has 
sometimes the sound of short i; as in carriage, marriage, 
parliament. 

le sounds in general like e long : as in grief, thief, grenadier. 
It has also the sound of long i ; as in die, pie, lie : and some- 
times that of short i ; as in sieve. 

leu has the sound of long u; as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. 

/o, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two 
distinct syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent. The termina- 
tions Hon and sio?i, are sounded exactly like the word shun : 

16a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. J 7 

except when the t is preceded by s or x ; as in question, di- 
gestion, combustion, mixtion, S,'c. 

The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in 
two syllables ; as in bilious, various, abstemious. But these 
vowels often coalesce into one syllable ; as in precious, fac- 
tious, noxious. 

J 

/ is pronounced exactly like soft g ; except in hallelujah, 
where it is pronounced like y. 
K 

K has the sound of chard, and is used before e and i, where, 
according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept, king, 
skirts. It is not sounded before n ; as in knife, knell, knocker. 
It is never doubled, except in Habakkuk; but c is used before 
it, to shorten the vowel by a double consonant ; as, cockle, 
pickle, sucker. 

L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow, quarrel. 
It is sometimes mute ; as in half, talk, psalm. The custom is 
to double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall ; 
except where a diphthong precedes it ; as, hail, toil, soil. 

Le, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak el; m 
which the e is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. 
M 

M has always the same sound ; as, murmur, monumental ; 
except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 
JY 

A* has two sounds ; the one pure ; as in man, net, noble ; 
the other a ringing sound, like ng ; as in thank, banquet, fyc. 

.V is mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m, 
as, hymn, solemn, autumn. 

Trie participial ing must always have its ringing sound ; as, 
writing, reading, speaking. Some writers have supposed that 
w hen in g is preceded by ing, it should be pronounced in; 
as, singing, bringing, should be sounded singin, bringin : but 
as it is a ^ood rule, with respect to pronunciation, to adhere 
to the written words, unless custom has clearly decided 'oth- 
erwise, it does not seem proper to adopt this innovation. 
O 

O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and 
a short one ; as in not, got, lot, trot. 

It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, 
attorney. And in some words it is sounded like oo ; as in 
prove, move ; and often like an ; as in nor, for, lord. 

The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long 



1 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sound of ; as boat, oat, coal : except in broad, abroad, groat, 
where it takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, ^"C. 

Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long ; as in 
fcetus, Antoeci : and sometimes short ; as in (Economics, 
(Ecumenical. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, 
it is sounded exactly like long o. 

Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and 
e long united, as in boy ; as, boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint : 
which should never be pronounced as if' written bile, spile, 
tile, fyc 

Oo almost always preserves its regular sound ; as in 
moon, soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, 
foot, and a few others. In blood and flood it sounds like 
short u. Door and floor should always be pronounced as if 
written dore and flore. 

The diphthong on has six different sounds. The first and 
proper sound is equivalent to oio in down ;as in bound, found, 
surround. 

The second is that of short u ; as in enough, trouble, journey. 

The third is that of oo ; as in soup, youth, tournament. 

The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, poultice. 

The fifth is that of short o ; as in cough, trough. 

The sixth is that of awe ; as in ought, brought, thought. 

Ow is generally sounded like ou in thou : as in brown, 
dowry, shower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in snow, 
grown, bestow. 

The diphthong oy is but another form for oi, and is pro- 
nounced exactly like it. 

P 

P has always the. same sound, except, perhaps, in cup- 
hoard, where it sounds like b. It is sometimes mute ; as in 
psalm, psalter, Ptolemy : and between m and t ; as, tempt, 
empty, presumptuous. 

Ph is generally pronounced like/; as in philosophy, phi- 
lanthropy, Philip. 

In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apo- 
phthegm, phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are 
entirely dropped. 

Q is always followed by w ; as quadrant, queen, quire. 
Qw is sometimes sounded like A; ; as,conquer, liquor, risque. 

R 
JR has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a 
smooth one ; as in bard, card, regard. 

Re at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak 
er ; as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. 

18a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

s 

£ has two different sounds. 

A soft and flat sound like z ; as, besom, nasal, dismal. 

A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, cyprus. 

It is always sharp at the beginning of woras. 

At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, 
trees, eyes; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, 
surplus, S,*c. ; and in words terminating with ous. 

It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before ; as, 
intrusion ; but like s sharp, if it follows a consonant ; as, 
conversion. It also sounds like z before e mute ; as, amuse ; 
and before y final ; as, rosy ; and in the words, bosom, de- 
sire, wisdom, fyc. 

S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. 
T 

T generally sounds, as in take, tempter. T before u, when 
the accent precedes, sounds like teh ; as, nature, virtue, are 
pronounced, natchure, virtchue. Ti before a vowel has the 
sound of sh ; as in salvation : except in such words as tierce, 
tiara, ^*c. and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and ex- 
cepting also derivatives from words ending in ty ; as, mighty, 
mightier. 

Th has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whe 
ther, heathen : the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, 
breath. 

Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as in thank, 
thick, thunder : except in that, then, thus, thither, and some 
others. Th at the end of words, is also sharp ; as, death, 
breath, mouth : except in with, booth, beneath, c^c. 

Th, in the middle of words, is sharp ; as, panther, ortho- 
dox, misanthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a 
few others. 

Th between two vowels, is generally flat in w"ords purely 
English ; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. 

Th, between two vowels, in w T ords from the learned lan- 
guages, is generally sharp; as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, 
apothecary. 

Th is sometimes pronounced like simple t ; as, Thomas, 
thyme, Thames, asthma. 

U 

£7 has three sounds, viz. 

A long sound ; as in mule, tube, cubic. 

A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. 

An obtuse sound, like oo ; as in bull, full, bushel. 

The strangest deviation of this letter from its natural 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sound, is in the words busy, business, bury, and burial ; 
which are pronounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. 

A is now often used before words beginning with u long, 
and an always before those that begin with u short ; as, a 
union, a university, a useful book ; an uproar, an usher, an 
umbrella. 

The diphthong ua, has sometimes the sound of wa ; as 
in assuage, persuade, antiquary. It has also the sound of 
middle a ; as in guard, guardian, guarantee. 

Ue is often sounded like we ; as in quench, querist, con- 
quest. It has also the sound of long u ; as in cue, hue, 
ague. In a few words, it is pronounced like e short ; as in 
guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in an- 
tique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialogue, ^c. 

Ui is frequently pronounced wi ; as in languid, anguish, ex- 
tinguish. It has sometimes the sound of i long ; as in guide, 
guile, disguise : and sometimes that of i short ; as in guilt, 
guinea, Guildhall. In some words it is sounded like long u ; 
as in juice, suit, pursuit : and after?-, like oo; as in bruise, 
fruit, recruit. 

Uo is pronounced like ivo ; as in quote, quorum, quondam. 

Uy has the sound of long e; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; 
pronounced obloquee, $c. ; except buy, and its derivatives. 

Fhas the sound of flat /; and bears the same relation to 
it, as 6 does to jo, d to f, hard g to k, and z to s. It has also 
one uniform sound ; as, vain, vanity, love. 

JV, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as water 
resembles the sound oiooater ; but that it has a stronger and 
quicker sound than oo, and has a formation essentially differ- 
ent, will appear to any person who pronounces, with atten- 
tion, the words wo. woo, beware; and who reflects that it will 
not admit the article an before it ; which oo would admit. 
In some words it is not sounded ; as in answer, sword, whole- 
some : it is always silent before r ; as in wrap, wreck, wrin- 
kle, wrist, wrong, wry, bewray, $'c 

W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, why, 
hwy ; when, hwen ; what^ hwat. 

W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without 
affecting the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, 
know, row, flow, ^*c. 

When w is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronuncia- 
tion, it has exactly the same sound as u would have in the 
same situation ; as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, vowel, 
outlaw. 

20a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

X 

X has three sounds, viz. 

Tt is sounded like z at the beginning; of proper names of 
Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with 
the accent upon it ; as, exit, exercise, excellence ; or Avhen 
the accent is on the next syllable, if it begins with a conso- 
nant ; as, excuse^ extent, expense. 

It has, generally, a flat sound like gz, when the accent is 
not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel ; as, 
exert, exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzist, egzample. 

Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee; as, 
youth, York, resemble the sounds of eeouth, eeork ; but that 
this is not its exact sound, will be clearly perceived, by pro- 
nouncing the words ye, yes, new-year, in which its just and 
proper sound is ascertained. It not only requires a stronger 
exertion of the organs of speech to pronounce it, than is re- 
quired to pronounce ee; but its formation is essentially differ- 
ent. It will not admit of a?? before it, as ee will in the follow- 
ing example ; an eel. The opinion that y and w, when they 
begin a word or syllable, take exactly the sound of ee and oo, 
has induced some grammarians to assert, that these letters 
are always vowels or diphthongs. 

When y is a vowel, it has exaotly the same sound as i would 
have in the same situation ; as, rhyme, system, justify, pyra 
mid, party, fancy, hungry. 

Z 

Z has the sound of an s uttered with a closer compression 
of the palate by the tongue : it is the fiat s ; as, freeze, frozen, 
brazen. 

It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the letters 
vary, as they are differently associated, and that the pronun- 
ciation of these associations depends upon the position of the 
accent. It may also be observed, that, in order to pronounce 
accurately, great attention must be paid to the vowels which 
are not accented. There is scarcely any thing which more 
distinguishes a person of a poor education, from a person of 
a good one, than the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. 
When vowels are under the accent, the best speakers and the 
lowest of the people, with very lew exceptions, pronounce 
them in the same manner ; but the unaccented vowels in the 
mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific 
sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change 
them into some other sound. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Section 3. The nature of articulation explained. 

A concise account of the origin and formation of the 
sounds emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not im- 
properly, be here introduced. It may gratify the ingenious 
student, and serve to explain more fully the nature of articu- 
lation, and the radical distinction between vowels and con- 
sonants. 

Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agitated 
or modified in its passage through the windpipe and larynx, 
as to become distincly audible. The windpipe is that tube, 
which, on touching the forepart of our throat externally, we 
feel hard and uneven. It conveys air into the lungs for the 
purpose of breathing and speech. The top or upper part of 
the windpipe is called the larynx, consisting of four or five 
cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together, by the 
action of certain muscles which operate all at the same time. 
In the middle of the larynx there is a small opening, called 
the glottis, through which the breath and voice are conveyed. 
This opening is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, 
therefore, the breath transmitted through it from the lungs, 
must pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus 
formed, is strengthened and softened by a reverberation from 
the palate and other hollow places in the inside of the mouth 
and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped for 
this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less agree- 
able. 

If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one and 
the same human voice is capable of uttering, together with 
the smallness of the diameter of the glottis ; and reflect, that 
the same diameter must always produce the same tone, and 
consequently, that to every change of tone a correspondent 
change of diameter is necessary ; we must be filled with ad- 
miration at the mechanism of these parts, and the fineness of 
the fibres that operate in producing effects so minute, so vari- 
ous, and in their proportions so exactly uniform. For it 
admits of proof, that the diameter of the human glottis is 
capable of more than sixty distinct degrees of contradiction or 
enlargement, by each of which a different note is produc- 
ed; and yet the greatest diameter of that aperture, as before 
observed, does not exceed one tenth of an inch. 

Speech is made up of articulate voices ; and what we call 
articulation, is performed, not by the lungs, windpipe, or 
larynx, but by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, 
lips, and nostrils. Articulation begins not, till the breath, or 
voice, has passed through the larvnx. 

22a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

The simplest articulate voices are those which proceed 
from an open mouth, and are by grammarians called vowel 
sounds. In transmitting these, the aperture of the mouth 
may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or very small; 
which is one cause of the variety of vowels ; a particular 
sound being produced by each particular aperture. More- 
over in passing through an open mouth, the voice may be 
gently acted upon, by the lips, or by the tongue and palate, or 
' by the tongue and throat; whence another source of va- 
riety in vowel sounds. 

Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be formed, 
agreeably to the plan in page 9 ; and the learners, by ob- 
serving the position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &c. when 
they are uttering the sounds, will perceive that various op- 
erations of these organs of speech, are necessary to the pro- 
duction of the different vowel sounds; and that by minute 
variations they may all be distinctly pronounced. 

When the voice, in its passage through the mouth, is to- 
tally intercepted, or strongly compressed, there is formed a cer- 
tain modification of articulate sound, which, as expressed by 
a character in writing, is called a consonant. Silence is the 
effect of total interception ; and indistinct sound, of a strong 
compression ; and therefore a consonant is not of itself a 
distinct articulate voice ; and its influence in varying the tones 
of language is not clearly perceived, unless it be accompanied 
by an opening of the mouth, that is, by a vowel. 

By making the experiment with attention, the student will 
perceive that each of the mutes is formed by the voice being 
intercepted, by the lips, by the tongue and palate, or by the 
tongue and throat ; and that the semi-voivels are formed by 
the same organs strongly compressing the voice in its pas- 
sage, but not totally intercepting it. 

The elements of language, according to the different seats 
where they are formed, or the several organs of speech 
chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are divided into sev- 
eral classes, and denominated as follows; those are called 
labials, which are formed by the lips ; those dentals, that are 
formed with the teeth; palatals, that are formed with the pal- 
ate ; and nasals, that are formed by the nose. 

The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, distinct, 
and accurate knowledge of the sounds of the first principles 
of language, and a wish to lead young minds to a further 
consideration of a subject so curious and useful, have induced 
the compiler to bestow particular attention on the preceding 
part of this work. Some writers think that these subjects 
do not properly constitute- any part of grammar; and con- 

23a 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sider them as the exclusive province of the spelling-book ; 
but if we reflect, that letters and their sounds are the con- 
stituent principles of that art, which teaches us to speak and 
write with propriety, and that in general, very little knowl- 
edge of their nature is acqniredby the spelling-book, we 
must admit, that they properly belong to grammai ; and that 
a rational consideration of these elementary principles of lan- 
guage is an object that demands the attention of the young 
grammarian. The sentiments of a very judicious and emi- 
nent writer (Quinctilian) respecting this part of grammar, 
may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present occa- 
sion. 

" Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of 
grammar, because it may seem to them a matter of small con- 
sequence, to show the distinction between vowels and con- 
sonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and mutes. But 
they who penetrate into the. innermost parts of this temple of 
science, will there discover such refinement and subtility 
of matter, as are not only proper to sharpen the understand- 
ings of the young persons, but sufficient to give exercise for 
most profound knowledge and erudition." 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, 
produce a syllable; syllables properly combined produce a 
word ; words duly combined produce a sentence ; and sen- 
tences properly combined produce an oration or discourse. 
Thus it is, says Harris in his Hekmes, that to principles ap- 
parently so trivial as a few plain elementary sounds, we owe 
that variety of articulate voices, which has been sufficient to 
explain the sentiments of so innumerable a multitude, as all 
the present and past generations of men. 

CHAPTER II. 
OF SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEM. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and consti- 
tuting a word, or part of a word : as, a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their 
syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

The following are the general rules for the division of 
words into syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be joined 
lo the latter syllable : as, de-light, lu*i-dal, re-source : except 
the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine : and ex-cept likewise words 
compounded ; as, up-on. un-even, dis-ease. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 2~> 

2. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not b<- 
separated ; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between 
two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must 
be divided ; as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, cof-fin. 

3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, 
if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pro- 
nounced long, they are not to be separated; as, de-throne, 
ae-strqy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is 
pronounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to 
that syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 

4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them 
as can begin a s}ilable belong to the latter, the rest to the 
former syllable : as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, dan-dler, 
dap-ple, con-strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided 
into separate syllables ; as, cm-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple 
words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glow- 
worm, over-power, never-the-less. 

7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are gen- 
erally separated : as, teach-est, teach-etb, teaeh-ing, teach-er, 
contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed ; good-ness, free-dom, false- 
hood. 

The rules for dividing words into syllables, with the rea- 
sons in support of them, s.re expressed at large in the author's 
English Spelling-book, Thirteenth, or any subsequent, edi- 
tion, page £10—215. 

CHAP. III. 

. Of words in general, and the rules for spelling them. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common con- 
sent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a 
word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three syl- 
lables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more sylla- 
bles, a Polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to 
any simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to an- 
other word in English of greater simplicity : as, manful, 
goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* 

* A compound word is included under the h ?ad of dervntivc words: as, pen 

knife, teacup, looking-glass j may be reduced to other words of greater simplicity. 

C 26a 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR . 

There are many English words which, though compounds 
in other languages, are to us primitives: thus, circumspect, 
circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c. 
primitive words in English; will be found derivatives, when 
traced in the Latin tongue. 

The orthography of the English Language is attended 
with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable 
part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to 
the general laws of formation; and, for this end, the learner 
is presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling 
primitive and derivative words, as have been almost univer- 
sally received. 

EULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with /, I, or 5, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant: as, staff, mill, pass, &c. 
The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, 
us, and thus. 

EULE 11. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant but /, I, or 5, 
and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final con- 
sonant; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn ; 
purr, and buzz. 

EULE III. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the 
plurals of nouns, the, persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past 
participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into 
i : as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest ; he carrieth, or car- 
ries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, that i may not 
be doubled; as, carry, carrying; bury, burying, &c. 

But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, 
is not changed; as, boy, boys: I cloy, he cloys, cloyed &c. ; 
except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, 
paid, and said; and their "compounds, unlaid, unpaid, un- 
said, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon as- 
suming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, 
commonly change ?/, into i; as, happy, happily, happiness. 
But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed 
in the additional syllable ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boy- 
hood: annoy, annoyer, annoyance ; joy, joyless/ joyful. 

EULE V. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel 
double that consonant when they take another syllable be- 

26a 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

ginning with a vowel, as, wit, witty; thin, thinnish ; to abet, 
an abetter; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preced- 
ing syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to toil, toiling 
U) offer, and offering; maid, maiden, &c. 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness. 
less,, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double; as. 
harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, dis- 
tressful, &c. But those words which end with double I, anr 
take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one I; as 
fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c. 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent 
e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful ; 
except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Merit, added to words ending with silent e, generally pre- 
serves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incite- 
ment, &c. The words judgment, abridgement, acknowledg- 
ment, are deviations from the rule. 

Like other terminations, merit changes y into i, when pre- 
ceded by a consonant; as, accompany, accompaniment; 
merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with 
silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, blamablc ; cure, 
curable ; sense, sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before 
e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words com- 
pounded with able : as, change, changeable ; peace, peace- 
able, &c. -Xl- 
rule x. 

When ing or ish is, added to words ending with silent e, the 
e is almost universally omitted: as, place, placing; lodge, 
.odging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 
RULE XI. 

Words taken into composition, often drop those letters 
which were superfluous in the simple words: as, handful, 
cunshil, withal, also, chilblain, foretel. 

The orthography of a great number of English words is 
far from being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. 
Thus, honour and honor, inquire and enquire, negotiate and 
negotiate, control and conlroid, expense and cxpencc, allege 
and allcdge, surprise and surprize, complete .and compleat, con- 
r.cxion and connection, abridgment and abridgement, and 
many other orthographical variations, are to be^met with in 



~5 ENGLISH GRAMAIAR. 

the best modern publications. Some authority for deciding 
differences of this nature, appears to be necessary : and 
where can we rind one of equal pretensions with Dr. Jonn- 
son's Dictionary ? though a Few of his decisions do not ap- 
pear to be warranted by the principles of etymology and 
analogy, the stable foundations of his improvements, — " As 
the weight of truth and reason (says Nares in his '• Elements 
of Orthoepy'") is irresistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has 
nearly fixed the external form of our language. Indeed, so 
convenient is it to have one acknowledged standard to recur 
to ; so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a trifling 
degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruitless 
pursuit of unattainable perfection : that it is earnestly to be 
hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be 
tempted to innovate." 

This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical 
inconsistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, immov- 
able moveable, chastely chastness. ftrliltntss frfiiy, sliness 
slyly, fearlessly fearlesness, Heedlessness needhsly. If these, 
and similar irregularities, were corrected by spelling the 
words analogically, according to the first word in each part 
of the series, and agreeably to the general rules of spelling, 
the Dictionary would doubtless, in these respects, be im- 
proved. 



PART 11. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

A General View of the Parts of Speccn. 

The second part of grammar is etymology, which 
treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifi- 
cations, and their derivation. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words, or, as tli^y 
are commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, the 

ARTICLE, the SUBSTANTIVE OV NOUN, the ADJECTIVE, the 

pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the 
conjunction, and the interjection. 

1. An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
point them out, and to show how far their signification ex- 
tends : as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

28a 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that 
exists, or of which we have any notion: as, London, 
man, virtue. 

A substantive may, in general, be distinguished by its tak- 
ing an article before it, or by its making sense of itself: as, 
a book, the sun, an apple ; temperance, industry, chastity. 

3. An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to 
express its quality : as, " An industrious man ; a virtu- 
ous woman." 

An Adjective may be known by its making sense with the 
addition of the word thing ; as, a good thing ; a bad thing ; 
or of any particular substantive ; as, a sweet apple, a pleasant 
prospect, a lively boy. 

4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, '« The 
man is happy ; he is benevolent : he is useful. 

5. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
suffer ; as, " I am ; I rule ; 1 am ruled." 

A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making 
sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to be- 
fore it : as, 1 walk, he plays, they write : or, to walk, to play, 
to write. 

6. An adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it: as, "He reads 
well -, a truly good man ; he writes very correctly." 

An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to 
the questions, How? how much? when? or where? as, in 
the phrase " He reads correctly, the answer to the question, 
How does he read ? is, correctly. 

7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to show the relation between them: as, "He went from 
London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are 
supported by industry." 

A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a 
personal pronoun, in the objective case ; as, with,' for, to, &c. 
will allow the objective case after them; with him, for her, to 
them, &c. 

8. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences : so as, out of two or more sen- 
tences, to make but one : it sometimes connects only 
words : as, " Thou and he are happy, because you are 
good." " Two and three are five." 

C 2 29a 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker : as, " O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " 

The observations which have, been made, to aid learners 
in distinguishing the parts of speech from one another, may 
afford them some small assistance ; but it will certainly be 
much more instructive, to distinguish them by the defini- 
tions, and an accurate knowledge of their nature. 

In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exem- 
plified : 

12 72 512 5 728 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man, and 

5 5 7474 *S 2 7 1 

was bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, for the 

386 3 2 3 96 654 

greatest and most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we 

5 4 7 1 3 7 2 

pervert it to the worst of purposes ! 

In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are articles ; 
power, speech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, are sub- 
stantives ; peculiar, "beneficent, greatest, excellent, icorst, are 
adjectives ; him, his, ice, it, are pronouns ; is, teas, bestowed, 
do, pervert, are verbs; most, how, often, are adverbs; ofto, 
on, by, for, are prepositions; and, but, are conjunctions ; and 
alas is an interjection. 

The number of the different sorts of words, or of the 
parts of speech, has been variously reckoned by different 
grammarians. £ome have enumerated ten, making the par- 
ticiple a distinct part: some eight, excluding the participle, 
ana ranking the adjective under the noun ; some four, and 
others only two, (the noun and the verb,) supposing the rest 
to be contained in the parts of their division. We have fol- 
lowed those authors, who appear to have given them the 
most natural and intelligible distribution. Some remarks on 
the division made by the learned Home Tooke, are contain- 
ed in the fii-st section of the eleventh chapter of etymology. 

The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of being 
considered as a part of artificial language or speech, being 
rather a branch of that natural language, which we possess 
in common with the brute creation, and by which we express 
the sudden emotions and passions that actuate our frame. 
But, as it is used in written as well as oral language, it may, 
in some measure, be deemed a part of speech. It is with us, 
a virtual sentence, in which the noun and verb are concealed 
under an imperfect or indigested word.: — See this Chapter, m 
the Octavo Grammar. 

80a 



ETYMOLOGY. SI 

CHAPTER II. 

Of the Articles. 

An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point 
them out, and to show how far their signification extends ; 
as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 

In English, there are but two articles, a, and the : a 
becomes an before a vowel,* and before a silent h ; as, an 
acorn, an hour. But if the 7* be sounded, the a only is to 
be used ; as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 

The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary 
distinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an before n, 
when it is to be pronounced ; and this circumstance, more 
than an3 r other, has probably contributed to that indistinct 
utterance, or total omission, of the sound signified by this 
letter, which very often occurs amongst readers and speak- 
ers. An horse, an husband, an herald, an heathen, and 
many similar associations, are frequently to be found in 
works of taste and merit. To remedy this evil, readers 
should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, the sound of the 
n, and to give the h its full pronunciation. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article : it is used in a 
vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in 
other respects indeterminate : as, " Give me a book ; " 
" Bring me an apple." 

The is called the definite article ; because it ascertains 
what particular thing or things are meant : as, " Give me 
the book ;" " Bring me the apples ; " meaning some book, 
or apples, referred to. 

A substantive without any article to limit it, is generally 
taken in its widest sense : as, " A candid temper is proper 
for man ;" that is, for all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be 
seen in the following examples ; "The son of a king — the son 
of the king — a son of the king." Each of these three 
phrases has an entirety different meaning, through the differ- 
ent application of the articles a and the. 

"Thou art a man," is a very general and harmless posi- 
tion; but, "Thou art the man," (as Nathan said to David,) 
is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse into the 
heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the diffpr- 

* A in<tead of an is now used before words oegniimig' with u long. Se« 
page 19, letter \J ; It ia also used before one ; as many a one. 

31a 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ent virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, 
herbs, ( &c. ;• as, "prudence is commendable; falsehood is 
odious; anger ought to be avoided;" &c. It is not prefixed 
to a proper name ; as, " Alexander,'' (because that of itself 
denotes a determinate individual or particular thing,) except 
for the sake of distinguishing a particular family : as, " He is 
a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;'' or by way of 
eminence: as, "Every man is not a Newton;" "He has the 
courage of an Achilles:" or when some noun is understood; 
" He sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 

"When an adjective is used with the noun to which the ar- 
ticle relates, it is placed between the article and the noun ; 
as, "a good man,'' " an agreeable woman," " the best friend." 
On some occasions, however, the adjective precedes a or an; 
as, " such a shame," " as great a man as Alexander," " too 
careless an author." 

• The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in the 
singular number only ; the definite article may be joined 
also to plurals. 

But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this 
rule, in the use of the adjectives few and many (the latter 
chiefly with the word great before it,) which, though joined 
with plural substantives, yet admit of the singular article a : 
as, afvw men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the ar- 
ticle has in these phrases; it means a small or great number 
collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, 
that is, of unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a score, a hundred, 
or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate of many 
collectively taken ; and therefore still retains the article a, 
though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, a 
hundred years, &c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the ad- 
jective many, and, singular noun: as, 

" Full many, a gem of purest ray serene, 

" The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: 
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

" And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many afiower re- 
fer to many gems and many floioers, separately,' not collect- 
ively considered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in 
the comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect is, to^ 
mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more 
precisely : as, " The more I examine it the better I like it. 

32a 



ETY 40L0GY. 33 

I like this the least of any." See this Chapter, in the Octa- 
vo Grammar. 

CHAPTER III. 

Of Substantives. 
Section i. Of Substantives in general. 

A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing- that 
exists, or of which we have any notion : as, London, man, 
virtue. 

Substantives are either proper or common. 

Proper names or substantives, are the names appropri- 
ated to individuals : as, George, London, Thames. 

Common names or substantives, stand for kinds contain- 
ing 1 many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals 
under them ; as, animal, man, tree, &c 

When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common names : as, " He is the Cicero 
of his age ; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Ccesars." 

Common names may also be used to signify individuals, 
by the addition of articles or pronouns : as, " The boy is 
studious ; that girl is discreet*." 

To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; and 
they are all of the third person when spoken of, and of the 
second when spoken to : as, " Blessings attend us on ev- 
ery side; be grateful, children of men !" that is, ye children 
of men. 

Section £. Of Gender. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex. 
There are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male 
kind : as, a man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female 
kind : as, a woman, a duck, a hen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither 
males nor females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender : 

* Nouns may also be divided into tbe following elates' Collective mums, or 
nouns of multitude ; as. the people, the parliament, the army : Abstract nouns, 
or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, 
goodness, whiteness : Ferial or participial nouns j as beginning, reading, w rit 

SGa 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, when we say of the sun, he is setting; and of a ship, 
she sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the 
masculine gender to nonns which are conspicuous lor the at- 
tributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by 
nature strong and efficacious Those, again, are made fem- 
inine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing 
or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amia- 
ble. Upon these principles, the sun is said to be masculine, 
and the moon, being the receptacle of the sun's light, to be 
feminine . The earth is generally feminine. A ship, a 
country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, being receiv- 
ers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of 
its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and 
its being the object of love. Fortune and the church are 
generally put in the feminine gender. 

The English language has three methods of distinguishing 
the sex, viz. 

1, By different words: as, 



Male. 


Fern ale. 


Male 


Female. 


Bachelor. 


Maid. 


Husband. 


Wife. 


Boar. 


Sow. 


King. 


Queen. 


Boy. 


Girl. 


Lad. 


Lass. 


Brother. 


Sister. 


Lord. 


Lady. 


Buck. 


Doe. 


Man. 


Woman. 


Bull. 


Cow. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Bullock or 


i Heifer. 


Milter. 


Spawner. 


Steer. 


Nephew. 


Niece. 


Cock. 


Hen. 


Ram. 


Ewe. 


Dog. 


Bitch. 




( Songstress or 
\ Singer. 


Drake. 


Puck. 


Singer. 


Earl. 


Countess. 




Slut. 


Father. 


Mother. 


Sloven. 


Daughter. 


Friar. 


Nun. 


Son. 


Hind. 


Gander. 


Goose. 


Stag. 


Aunt. 


Hart. 


Roe. 


Uncle. 


Witch. 


Horse. 


Mare. 


Wizard. 




2, 


, By a difference of termination : 


as, 


Mala 


Female. 


Mate. 


Female. 


Abbot. 


Abbess. 


Landgrave. 


Landgravine. 


Actor. 


Actress. 


Lion. 


Lioness. 


Administrator. 


Administratrix 


Marqui. . 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer. 


Adultress. 


Master. 


Mistress. 


Ambassador. 


Ambassadress, 


Mayor. 


Mayoress.. 


Arbiter. 


Arbitress. 


Patron 


Patroness. 


Baron. 


Baroness. 


Peer. 


Peeress. 


Bridegroom. 
Benefactor 


Bride. 


Poet. 


Poetess. 


Benefactress. 


Priest. 


Priestess. 








34a 



ETYMOLOGY. 



35 



Male. 
Caterer. 
Chanter. 
Conductor. 
Count. 
Deacon. 
Duke. 
Elector. 
Emperor. 
Enchanter. 
Executor. 
Govenor. 
Heir. 
Hero. 
Hunter. 
Host. 
Jew. 



Female. 

Cateress. 

Chantress. 

Conductress. 

Countess. 

Deaconess. 

Duchess. 

Electress. 

Empress. 

Enchantress. 

Executrix. 

Governess. 

Heiress. 

Heroine. 

Huntress. 

Hostess. 

Jewess. 



Male- 
Prince. 
Prior. 
Prophet. 
Protector. 
Shepherd . 
Songster. 
Sorcerer. 
- Sultan. 

Tiger. 

Traitor. 

Tutor. 

Viscount. 

Votary. 

Widower. 



Female. 

Princess. 

Prioress. 

Prophetess. 

Protectress. 

Shepherdess. 

Songstress. 

Sorceress. 
\ Sultaness. 
I Sultana. 

Tigress. 

Traitress. 

Tutoress. 

Viscountess. 

Votaress. 

Widow. 



3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to the 
substantive : as 

A hen-sparrow. 



A Cock-sparrow. 
A man-servant. 
A he-goat. 
A he-bear. 
A male child. 
Male descendants. 



A maid-servant 
A she-goat. 
A she-bear. 
A female child. 
Female descendants. 



It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either mascu- 
line or feminine. The words parent, child, cousin, friend, 
neighbour, servant, and several others, are used indifferently 
for males or females. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to consciseness 
and perspicuity of expression. We have only a sufficient num- 
ber of them to make us feel our want ; for when we say of a 
woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a 
weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the termination, which 
we cannot avoid; but we can say, that she is a botanist, a 
student, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, a companion, because 
these terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. 

Section 3. Of Number. 

Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more. 

Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object; as, a chair, 
a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one; as, 
chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they ex- 
press, are used only in the singular form; as, wheat, pitch, 

35a. 



S5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gold, sloth, pride, $-c. ; others, only in the plural form ; as, 
Bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, ^-c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
swine, £>*c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by ad- 
ding s to the singular: as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, 
thoughts. But when the substantive singular ends in x, ch 
soft, sh,ss, or s, we add es in the plural: as, box, boxes; 
church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, rebusses. 
If the singular ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding 
9; as, monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns which end in 0, havj sometimes es, added to the 
plural; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, vol- 
cano, wo : and sometimes only s ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, 
seraglio. 

Nouns ending in f, or ft, are rendered plural by the 
change of those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves ; half, 
halves ; wife, wives : except grief, relief, reproof, and several 
others, which form the plural by the addition of .<?. Those 
which end in ff, have the regular plural: as, ruff, ruffs ; except, 
staff, staves. 

Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other rowel 
in the same syllable, change it into its in the plural : as, beau- 
ty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, when there 
is another vowel in the syllable: as, key, keys ; delay, de- 
lays ; attorney, attorneys. 

"Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the sin- 
gular into e : as, man, men ; woman, women ; alderman al- 
dermen. The words, ox and child, form oxen and children ; 
brother, makes either brothers, or brethren. Sometimes the 
diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the plural : as, foot, feet ; 
goose, geese ; tooth teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and 
mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, wht-n the coin is 
meant : die, dice (for play ;) die, dies (for coining.) 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of tlie general- 
ity of correct writers, to construe the following words as 
plural nouns ; pains, riches, alms: and also, mathematics, 
metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, with other sim- 
ilar names of sciences. 

Dr. Johnson says that the adjective much is sometimes a 
term of number, as well as of quantity. This may account 
for tne instances we meet with of its associating with pains 
as a plural noun : as, " much pains." The connexion, how- 
ever, is not to be recommended. 

The word news is low almost universally considered as 
belonging to the sin* ilar number. 

S6a 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

The noun means is used both in the singular and the plu- 
ral number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from th<- 
Hebrew, Greek and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, 
with respect to number. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Cherub. 


Cherubim. 


Datum. 


Data. 


Seraph. 


Seraphim. 


Effluvium. 


Effluvia. 


Antithesis. 
Automaton. 


Antitheses 
Automata. 


Encomium. 


< Encomia or 
( Encomiums 


Basis. 


Bases. 


Erratum. 


Errata. 


Crisis. 


Crises. 


Genius. 


Genii/ 


Criterion. 


Criteria. 


Genus. 


Genera. 


Diaeresis. 


Diaereses. 


Index. 


5 Indices or 
( Indexes.-!- 


Ellipsis. 


Ellipses. 


Emphasis. 


Emphases. 


Lamina. 


Laminse. 


Hypothesis. 


HA'po-fheses. 


Medium. 


Media. 


Metamor- 


( Metamor- 


Magus. 


Magi. 


phosis. 


"( phoses. 


Memoran 


( Memoranda or 
( Memorandums. 


Phenomenon 


Phenomena. 


dura. 


Appendix. 


( Appendices or 
( Appendixes. 


Radius. 
Stamen. 


Peadii. 
Stamina. 


Arcanum. 


Arcana. 


Stratum. 


Strata. 


Axis. 


Axes. 


Vortex. 


Vortices 


Calx. 


Cakes. 







Some words, derived from the learned languages, are con- 
fined to the plural number ; as, antipodes, credenda, literati, 
minutiae. 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plu- 
ral, are used in the same manner when adopted into our 
tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 
Section 4. Of Case. 

In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective.^ 

The nominative case simpty expresses the name of a thing, 
or the subject of the verb : as, " The boy plays 5" " The 
girls learn. " 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property 
or possession ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s 
coming after it : as, " The scholar's duty ;" "My fathers 
house." 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the 

* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits : Gentuscs, when signifying persons Oi 
genius. 

t Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents : Indices, when 
referring to Algebraic quantities. 

§ The possessive is so;netinus called the genitive case ; and the objective, 
the accusative. 

D lb 



ENGLISH GRAM.ALAR. 



On eagles' wings ;" " The 



38 

apostrophe is retained : as, ' 
drapers' company." 

Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, the 
apostrophic s is not added: as, "For goodness' sake ;" 
" For righteousness' sake." 

The objective case expresses the object of an action, or 
of a relation ; and generally follows a verb active, or a pre- 
position : as, * ; John assists Charles ;" " They live in 
London." 

English substantives are declined in the following man<- 
ner : 

Singnlar. Plural. 

A mother. Mothers. 

A mother's Mothers' 

A mother. Mothers. 

The man. 
The man's. 
The man. 



The men. 
The men's. 
The men. 



Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 
Nominative Case. 
Possessive Case. 
Objective Case. 

The English language, to express different connexions and 
relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, pre- 
positions. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and 
some too among the modern languages, as the German, vary 
the termination or ending of the substantive, to answer the 
same purpose ; an example of which, in the Latin, is inserted, 
as explanatory of the nature and use of cases, viz. 

Singular. 
Nominative. Do mints, A Lor**. 

Genitive. Domini, Lord's, of a Lord. 

Dative. Doming, To a Lord. 

Accusative. Domixtm, A Lord. 

Vocative. Do mine, O Lord. 

Ablative. Domino, By a Lord. 

Plural. 
Nominative. Domini, Lords. 

Genitive. Dominorum. Lords', of Lords. 

Dative. Dominis, To Lords. 

Accusative. Dominos, Lords. 

Vocative. Domini, O Lords. 

Ablative. ' Dominis, By Lords. 

Some writers think, that the relations signified by the ad- 
dition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly 
be denominated cases, in English ; and that, on this principle, 
there are, in our language, as many cases as in the Latin 
tongue. But to this mode of forming :ases for our substan- 
tives, there are strong objections. It vould, indeed, be a 
formal and useless arrangement of not is, articles, and pre 

26 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

positions. If an arrangement of this nature were to be con- 
sidered as constituting cases, the English language would have 
a much greater number of them than the Greek and Latin 
tongues : for, as every preposition has its distinct meaning 
and effect, every combination of a preposition and article with 
the noun, would form a different relation, and would constitute 
a distinct case. — This would encumber our language with many 
new terms, and a heavy and useless load of distinctions.* 

On the principle of imitating other languages in name? 
and forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom, we 
might adopt a number of declensions, as well as a variety of 
cases, for English substantives. Thus, five or six declen- 
sions, distinguished according to the various modes of form- 
ing the plural of substantives, with at least half a dozen cases 
to each declension, would furnish a complete arrangement of 
English nouns, in all their trappings. See on this subject, the 
fifth and mnfc sections of the sixth chapter of et3'mology. 

But though this variety of cases does not at all corres- 
pond with the idiom of our language, there seems to be great 
propriety in admitting a case in English substantives, w r hich 
shall serve to denote the objects of active verbs and of pre- 
positions ; and which is, therefore, properly termed the ob- 
jective case. The general idea of case uoubtless has a refer- 
ence to the termination of the noun: but there are many in- 
stances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the nominative 
and accusative cases have precisely the same form, and are 
distinguished only by the relation they bear to other words in 
the sentence. We are therefore warranted, by analogy, in 
applying this principle to our own language, as far as utility, 
and the idiom of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in 
English, a noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, 
is very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the nomina- 
tive, or in the possessive case ; and that a comprehensive 
case, correspondent to that difference, must be useful and 
proper. The business of parsing, and of showing the con- 
nexion and dependence of words, will be most conveniently 
accomplished, by the adoption of such a case ; and the ir- 
regularity of having our nouns sometimes placed in a situa- 
tion, in which they cannot be said to be in any case at all, will 
be avoided. 

* If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the noun, 
or by the different relations it may bear to the governing word, then we have 
in our language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions : and above a 
man, beneath a man, beyond a man, round almut a man, within a man, with- 
•*»* a man, Slc. shall be cases, as well as. of a man, to a man, and with a man." 

Dr. Beitlie. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The author of this work long doubted the propriety of as- 
signing to English substantives an objective case: but a re- 
newed, critical examination of the subject ; an examination 
lo which he was prompted by the extensive and increasing 
demand for the grammar, has produced in his mind a full 
persuasion, that the nouns of our language are entitled to this 
comprehensive objective case. 

When the thing to which another is said to belong, is ex- 
pressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of 
I he possessive case is commonly added to the last term : as, 
"The king of Great Britain's dominions." 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive 
case immediately succeed each other, in the following form : 
" My friend's wife's sister :" a sense which would be better ex- 
pressed by saying, "the sister of my friend's wife :" or, " my 
friend's sister-in-law." Some grammarians say, that in each 
of the following phrases, viz. " A bock of my brother's," 
"A servant of the queen's ;" " A soldier of the king's," there 
are two genitive cases ; the first phrase implying, "one of 
the books of my brother," the next, "one of the servants of 
the queen ;" and the last, " one of the soldiers of the king," 
But as the preposition governs the objective case ; and as 
there are not, m each of these sentences, two apostrophes 
with the letter s coming after them, we cannot with proprie- 
ty say, that there are two genitive cases. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of Adjectives. 
Section 1. Of the nature of Adjectives, and the degrees 
of comparison. 

An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to ex- 
press its quality ; as, " An industrious man y 9 " A virtu- 
ous woman ;" " A benevolent mind." 

In English, the adjective is not varied on account of 
gender, number, or case. Thus we say, " A careless boy ; 
careless girls." 

The only variation which it admits, is that of the de- 
grees of comparison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of com- 
parison ; the positive, the comparative, and the super- 
lative. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated these three de- 
grees of comoarison ; but the first of them has been thought 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

by some writers, to be. improperly, termed a degree of com- 
parison ; as it seems to be nothing more than the simple form 
of the adjective, and not to imply either comparison or degree. 
This opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective be 
supposed to imply comparison or degree, by containing a se- 
cret or general reference to other things: as, when we say, 
" he is a tall man," " this is a fail' day," we make some refer- 
ence to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather. 

The Positive State expresses the quality of an object, 
without any increase or diminution : as, good, wise, great. 

The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in signification : as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the positive 
to the highest or lowest degree : as, wisest, greatest, least 
wise. 

The simple word, or positive, becomes the comparative, 
by adding r or er ; and the superlative, by adding st or 
est, to the end of it : as, wise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, 
greatest. And the adverbs more and most, placed before 
the adjective, have the same effect : as, wise, more wise, 
most wise. 

The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a de- 
gree of comparison, by which the signification is diminished 
below the positive : as, black, blackish, or tending to black- 
ness ; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather, is very properly used to express a small 
degree, or excess of a quality: as, " She is rather profuse in 
her expenses." 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and 
est ; and dissyllables by more and most : as, mild, milder, 
mildest ; frugal, more frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables end- 
ing in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute, as, able, 
ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite ; 
easily admit of er and est : as, happier, happiest : abler, ablest ; 
politer, politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly 
ever admit of those terminations. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding the ad- 
verb most to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or 
utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of 
very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to 
getthe better of analogy.) that are irregular in this respect : 
as, " good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; 
much or many, more, most ; neai; nearer, nearest or next j 

D2 5b 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest f 
and a few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite 
article before it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, 
and is written as a substantive : as, " Providence rewards the 
good, and punishes the bad." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature 
of adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow 
ground, fyc. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal : cardin- 
al, as, one, two, three, ^*c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, S;c. 

Section 2. Remarks on the subject of Compaj-ison. 

If we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we 
shall perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or 
at least indefinite. — A mountain is larger than a mite ; — by 
how many degrees ? How much bigger is the earth than a 
grain of sand ? By how many degrees was Socrates wiser 
than Alcibiades ? or by how 'many is snow whiter than this 
paper ? It is plain, that to these and the like questions, no 
definite answers can be returned. 

In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the 
degrees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just 
twelve times as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times 
the length of a minute. But, in regard to qualities, and to 
those quantities which cannot be measured exactly, it is im- 
possible to say how many degrees may be comprehended in 
the comparative excess. 

But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in fact, 
they cannot be so in language ; nor would it be convenient, 
if language were to express many of them. In regard to un- 
measured quantities and qualities, the degrees of more and 
less, (besides those marked above,) may be expressed intel- 
ligibly, at least, if not accurately, by certain adverbs, or words 
of like import : as, "Socrates was much wiser than Alcibia- 
des ;" " Snow is a great deal whiter than this paper ;" "Epam- 
inondas was by far the most accomplished of the Thebans f 
"The evening star is a very splendid object, but the sun is in- 
comparably more splendid ;" " The Deity is infinitely greater 
than the greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of these, 
and the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience ; and, 
if it were, it is unavoidable : for human speech can only ex- 
press human thought ; and where thought is necessarily in- 
accurate, language must be so too. 

When the word very, exceedingly, or an}' other of similar 
import, is put before the positive, it is called by some writera 

6 b 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

the superlative of eminence, to distinguish it from the other 
superlative, which has been already mentioned, and is called 
the superlative of comparison. Thus, very eloquent, is termed 
the superlative of eminence ; most eloquent, the superlative of 
comparison. In the superlative of eminence, something of 
comparison is, however, remotely or indirectly intimated ; 
for we cannot reasonably call a man very eloquent, without 
comparing his eloquence with the eloquence of other men. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express the 
same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, 
the sentence, " Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valua- 
ble," conveys the same sentiment as the following : " Virtue 
is more valuable than every other acquirement." 

CHAPTER V. 

Of Pronouns. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, " The 
man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is useful." There 
are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the personal, the re- 
lative, and the adjective pronouns. 

Section 1. Of the Personal Pronouns. , 

There are five Personal Pronouns, viz. 7, thou, he, 
she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye, or you, they. 

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, 
and case. 

The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz. 

/, is the first person ^ 

Thou, is the second person > Singular. 

He, she, or it., is the third person j 

We, is the first person S 

Ye or you, is the second person £ Plural. 

They, is the third person 3 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when we 
reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject 
of any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak 
of himself ; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom 
headdresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other 
person : and as the speakers*, the persons spoken to, and the 
other persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these per- 
sons must have the plural number. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, 
are two, the singular and the plural : as, I, thou, he, we, 
ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it 
is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same 
time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be pre- 
sent ; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is com- 
monly known, and needs not to be marked by a distinction 
of gender in the pronouns : but the third person or thing spo- 
ken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is ne- 
cessary that it should be marked* by a distinction of gender ; 
at least when some particular person or thing is spoken of, 
that ought to be more distinctly marked : accordingly the 
pronoun singular of the third person has the three genders, 
he, she, it. 

Pronouns have three cases ; the nominative, the possess- 
ive, and the objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form 
different from that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 



Person. 


Case. 


First. 


JVom. 




Poss. 


Second. 


Obj 
Norn 




Poss. 


Third. 


Ohj. 
Nbm. 


Mas. 


Poss. 


Third. 


Obj. 
Norn. 


Tern. 


Pots. 


Third. 


Obj. 

JYom 


Neuter. 


Poss. 




Obj. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


We. 


Mine. 


Ours. 


Me. 


Us. 


Thou. 


Ye or you. 


Thine 


Yours." 


Thee. 


You. 


He. 


They. 
' Theirs. 


His. 


Him. 


Them. 


She. 


Thev. 


Hers 


Theirs. 


Her. 


Them. 


It. 


They. 


Its. 


Theirs. 


It. 


Them. 



Section £. Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to 
some word or phrase going before, which is thence called 
the antecedent ; they are, who, which, and that : as, " The 
man is happy who lives virtuously!." 

What is a kind of compound relative, including both 
the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equivalent to 
that which : as, " This is what I wanted ;" that is to say, 
" the thing which I wanted." 

t The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or 
phrase which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. See note under 
the VI. Rule of Syntax. 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inani- 
mate things : as, " He is a friend, who is faithful in ad- 
versity f* " The bird, which sung so sweetly, is flown ;' ? 
" This is the tree, which produces no fruit." 

That, as a relative, is often used to prevent the too fre- 
quent repetition of who and which. It is applied to both 
persons and things : as, " He that acts wisely deserves 
praise ;" " Modesty is a quality that highly adorns a wo- 
man." 

Ulio is of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular and Plural. 

No?ninative. Who. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom. 

IFhich, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, but 
they do not vary their termination ; except that ivkose is 
sometimes used as the possessive case of which : as, " Is there 
any other doctrine ivhose followers are punished ?" 

" And the. fruit ^> 

Of that forbidden tree ivhose mortal taste> 

Brought death" milton. 



-" Pure the joy without allay, 

> vprv PflTitnrp is tr;»nnnil!itv 



Whose very rapture is tranquillity young. 

" The lights and shades, ivhose well accorded strife 

Gives all the strength and colour of our life." pope. 

"This is one of the clearest characteristics of its being a 
religion ivhose origin is divine." blair. 

By the use of this license, one wordis substituted for three. : 
as, " Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the knowledge 
of nature," for, " Philosophy, the end of which is to instruct 
us," ^-c. 

ff'ho, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever 
and ever annexed to them ; as, " whosoever or whoever, which- 
soever or whichever, whatsoever or whatever :" but they are sel- 
dom used in modern style. 

The word thut is sometimes a relative, sometimes a de- 
monstrative pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. It is a 
relative, when it may be turned into who or which without 
destroying the sense: as, " They that (who) reprove us, may 
be. our best friends ;" "From every tiling that (which) you 
see, derive instruction." It is a demonstrative pronoun when 
it is followed immediately by a substantive, to which it is either 
joined, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies : as, " 7Viai 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

boyisindustrious;"" That belongs to me;'' meaning, that book, 
that desk, ^-c. It is a conjunction, when it joins sentences to- 
gether, and cannot be turned into who or which, without de- 
stroying the sense : as, " Take care that every day be well em- 
ployed." "I hope he will believe thatl have not acted improp • 



iho, 



, which, and what, are called Interrogatives, when they 
are used in asking questions ; as, " Who is he ?" " Which is the 
book ?" " TVhat art thou doing ?" 

Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation : 
as, " Whether of these shall I choose ?" but it is now seldom 
used, the interrogative ivhich being substituted for it. Some 
Grammarians think that the use of it should be revived,- as, 
like either and neither, it points to the dual number ; and 
would contribute to render our expressions concise and defi- 
nite. 

Some writers have classed the interrogatives as a separate 
kind of pronouns ; but they are too nearly related to the rela- 
tive pronouns, both in nature and form, to render such a di- 
vision proper. They do not, in fact, lose the character of rel- 
atives, when they become interrogatives. The only differ- 
ence is, that without interrogation, the relatives have reference 
to a subject which is antecedent, definite, and known ; with 
an interrogation, to a subject which is subsequent, indefinite, 
and unknown, and which it is expected that the answer should 
express and ascertain. 

Section 3. Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating 
the properties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The adjective pronouns may be subdivided into four 
sorts, namely, the possessive, the distributive, the demon- 
strative, and the indefinite. 

1. The possessive are those which kelate to possession 
or property. There are seven of them; viz. my, thy, his, 
her, our, your, their. 

Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, wereibrmerly used 
before a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a vowel, or 
a silent h : as, " Blot out all mine iniquities." 

The pronouns, his, mine, thine, have the same form, wheth- 
er they are possessive pronouns, or the possessive cases of 
their respective personal pronouns. See note to Rule 10. 

A few examples will probably assist the learner, to distin- 
guish the possessive pronouns from the genitive cases of their 
correspondent personal pronouns. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pro- 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

nouns. — " My lesson is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; 
He loves his studies ; She performs her duty ; We own our 
faults ; Your situation is distressing ; I admire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of the 
personal pronouns. — " This desk is mine ; the other is thine ; 
These trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This house is ours, 
and that is yours ; Theirs is very commodious." 

Some grammarians consider its as a possessive pronoun. 

The two words oum and self, are used in conjunction with 
pronouns. Own is added to possessives, both' singular and 
plural : as, "My own hand, our own house." It is emphatica!, 
and implies a silent contrariety or opposition : as, ''I live in 
my own house," that is, " not in a hired house." Self is ad- 
ded to possessives : as, myself, yourselves ; and sometimes to 
personal pronouns ; as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, 
like civn, expresses emphasis and opposition : as, "1 did this 
myself," that is, "not another;" or it forms a reciprocal 
pronoun : as, " We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 

Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, 
instead of his self theirselves ; as, "He came himself;" "He 
himself shall do this ;" " They performed it themselves." 

' 2. The distributive are those which denote the persons 
or things that make up a number, as taken separately and 
singly. They are each, every, either : as, "Each of his 
brothers is in a favourable situation ;" " Every man must ac- 
count for himself;" " I have not seen either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signi- 
fies either of the two, or every one of any number taken sep- 
arately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each 
one of them all taken separately. This pronoun was for- 
merly used apart from its noun, but it is now constantly an- 
nexed to it, except in legal proceedings : as in the phrase, 
" all and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, 
and signifies the one or tlie other. To say, "either of tfie 
three, is therefore improper. 

Neither imports "not either ;" that is, not one nor the oth- 
er : as, " Neither of my friends was there." 

3. The demonstrative are those which precisely point 
out the subjects to/wTuch they relate : ////sand that, these 
and those, are of this class : as, " This is true charity ; 
that is only its image." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the most distant : as, " This man is more intelligent than 
that." This indicates the latter or last mentioned ; that, 
the former or first mentioned : as, " Both wealth and pov- 
erty are temptations ; that, tends to excite pride, this, dis- 
content." 

Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly 
ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in 
many of their applications. The following sentence may 
serve as an example : " It was happy for the state, that Fabi- 
us continued in the command with Minucius: the former's 
phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity." 

4. The indefinite are those which express their subjects 
in an indefinite or general manner. The following are of 
this kind : some, other, any. one, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are va- 
ried. One has a possessive case, which it forms in the same 
manner as substantives : as, one, one's. This word has a 
general signification, meaning people at large ; and some- 
times also a peculiar reference to the person who is speak- 
ing : as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind.'' 
" One is apt to love one's self. 5 ' This word is often used, by 
good writers, in the plural number: as, "The great ones of 
the world;" "The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the 
young ones ;" " My wife and the little ones are in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other Others 

Poss. Other's Others. 

Obj. Other Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun 
to which it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, 
" When you have perused these papers, I will send you the 
ethers." " He pleases some, but he disgusts others.'' When 
this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or plural, it 
has no variation : as, " the other man," "the other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the indefi- ' 
nite pronouns. " Some of you are wise and good ;" " A few 
of them were idle, the others industrious ;" "Neither is there 
any that is unexceptionable :" " One ought to know one's 
own mind ;" " They were all present ;" " Siich is the state 
of man, that he is never at rest;" " Some are happy, while 
others are* miserable." 

The word another is composed of the indefinite article pre- 
fixed to the word other. 

None is used in both numbers : as. " None is so deaf as he 

I2b 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

tnat will not bear ;" " None of those are equal to these." It 
seems originally to have signified, according to its derivation, 
not one, and therefore to have had no plural; but there is 
good authority for the use of it in the plural number: as, 
" JVbnethatgo unto her return again." Prov. ii. 13. " Terms 
of peace were none vouchsaf'd.'' Milton. " JVowe of them 
are varied to express the gender." " None of them have differ- 
ent endings for the numbers." Lov/ths Introduction. "None 
of their productions are extant." Blair. 

We have endeavoured to explain the nature of the adjec- 
tive pronouns, and to distinguish and arrange them intelligi- 
bly : but it is difficult, perhaps impracticable, to define and 
divide them in a manP2»- perfectly unexceptionable. Some 
of them, in particular may seem to require a different ar- 
rangement. We pr-sume, however, that, for every useful 
purpose, the present classification is sufficiently correct. All 
the pronouns, e^ept the personal and relative, may indeed, 
in a genera! v^»v of them, be considered as definitive pro- 
nouns, because they define or ascertain the extent of the 
common name, or general term, to which they refer, or are 
joined 5 but as each class of them does this, more or less ex- 
actly, or in a manner peculiar to itself, a division adapted to 
this circumstance appears to be suitable to the nature of things, 
and the understanding of learners. 

It is the opinion of some respectable grammarians, that the 
words this, that, any, some, such, his, their, our, ^c. are pro- 
nouns, when they are used separately from the nouns to which 
they relate, but that, when (hey are joined to those nouns, 
they are not to be considered as belonging to this species of 
words ; because, in this association, they rather ascertain a 
substantive, than supply the place of one'. They assert that, 
in the phrases, "give me that" "this is John's," and "suck 
were some of you," the words in italics are pronouns; but 
that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns ; " this 
book is instructive," "some boys are. ingenious," u my health 
is declining," " our hearts are deceitful," ^-c. Other gram- 
marians think, that all these words are pure adjectives ; and 
that none of them can properly be called pronouns; as the 
genuine pronoun stands by itself, without the aid of a noun 
expressed or understood. They are of opinion, that in the 
expressions, " Give me that," " this is John's," ^-c. the noun 
is always understood, and must be supplied in the mind oftbe 
reader ; as, " Give me that look ;" "this book is John's ;" and 
"such persons were some persons amongst you." 

Some writers are of opinion that the pronouns should be 
classed into substantive and adjective pronouns. Under the 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

former, they include the personal and the relative ; under the 
latter, all the others. But this division, though a neat one, 
does not appear to be accurate. All the relative pronouns 
■will not range under the substantive head. — We have distrib- 
uted these parts of grammar, in the mode which we think 
most correct and intelligible: but, for the information of stu- 
dents, and to direct their inquiries on the subject, we state 
the different opinions of several judicious grammarians. See 
the Octavo Grammar on these points. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Of Verbs. 
Section I. Of the nature of Verbs in general. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to 
suffer ; as, " I am, I rule, I am ruled." 

Verbs are of three kinds ; active, passive, and neu- 
ter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, 

and DEFECTIVE. 

A Verb Active expresses an action, and necessarily im- 
plies an agent, and an object acted upon : as, to love ; " 1 
love Penelope." 

A Verb Passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or 
the receiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an ob- 
ject acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon : 
as, to be loved ; " Penelope is loved by me." 

A Verb Neuter expresses neither action nor passion, 
but being, or a state of being : as, " I am, I sleep, I sit." # 

The verb active is also called transitive, because the action 
passes over to the object, or has an effect upon some other 
thing: as, "The tutor instructs his pupils;'* "I esteem the 
man." 

Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransitives, 
because the effect is confined within the subject, and does 

*Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds. 
1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passed from the 
agent to some object: as, Cesar conquered Pompey. 

2^. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which has 
no effect upon any thing- beyond the agent himself: as, Cesar walked. 

3d. Passive, or those which express, not action,but passion, whether pleas- 
ing or painful : as, Portia was loved ; Pompey was conquered. 

4th. Neuter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in ac 
tion nor passion: as, Cesar stood. 

This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intran 
sitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner : for 
the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive, 
is easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and 
intransitively active, is not always clear. It is. indeed, often very difficult t» 
be ascertained. 

lib 



ETYMOLOGY 51 

not pass over to any object : as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep.'' 

Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neuters, 
make a near approach to the nature of a verb active; but 
they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive : 
as, to run, to walk, to fly, 8fc. The rest are more obviously 
neuter, and more clearly expressive of a middle state between 
action and passion : as, to stand, to lie, to sleep, ^-c. 

In English, many verbs are used both in an active and a 
neuter signification, the construction only determining of 
which kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even 
or level, is a verb active ; but when it signifies to grow dull or 
insipid, it is a verb neuter. 

A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may be- 
come a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb ; it 
cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be 
construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, she smiled him :•, 
or, he icas smiled. But to smile on being a compound active 
verb, we properly say, she smiled on him ; he was smiled on 
by fortune hi every undertaking. 

Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help ol 
which the English verbs are principally conjugated. They 
are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, with their varia- 
tions; and let and must, which have no variation.* 

In our definition of the verb, as a part of speech which sig- 
nifies to be, to do, or to suffer, cVc. we have included every 
thing, either expressly or by necessary consequence, that is 
essential to its nature, and nothing that is not essential to it. 
This definition is warranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, 
and of many other respectable writers on grammar. There 
are, however, some grammarians, who consider assertion as 
the essence of the verb. But, as the participle and the infin- 
itive, if included in it, would prove insuperable objections to 
their scheme, they have, without hesitation, denied' the former 
a place in the verb, and declared the latter to be merely an 
abstract noun. This appears to be going rather too far in 
support of an hypothesis. It seems to be incumbent on these 
grammarians, to reject also the imperative mood. "What 
part of speech would they make the verbs in the following 
sentence? "Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive 
us our sins." Will it be said, that the verbs in these phrases 
arc assertions ? 

In reply to these questions, it has been said, that " Depart 
instantly,-' is an expression equivalent to, " 1 desire you to 

* Let, as a principal verb, has Icttut and Ictteth ; but as a helping verb, it ad 
nuts of no variation. 

156 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

depart instantly ;" and that as the latter phra;e implies affir 
mation or assertion, so does the former. But, supposing the 
phrases to be exactly alike in sense, the reasoning is not con- 
clusive. 1st. In (he latter phrase, the only part implying af- 
firmation, is, "I desire." The words " to "depart," are in the 
infinitive mood, and contain no assertion : they affirm noth- 
ing. 2d. The position is not. tenable, that " Equivalence in 
sense implies similarity in grammatical nature." It proves 
too much, and therefore nothing. This mode of reasoning 
would confound the acknowledged grammatical distinction of 
words. A pronoun, on this principle, may be proved to be a 
noun ; a noun, a verb ; an adverb, a noun and preposition ; 
the superlative degree, the comparative : the imperative mood, 
the indicative ; the future tense, the present ; and so on : be- 
cause they may respectively be resolved into similar mean- 
ings. Thus, in the sentence, "1 desire you to depart," the 
words to depart, may be called a noun, because they are equiv- 
alent in sense to the noun departure, in the following sentence, 
" I desire your departure." The words " depart instantly," 
may be proved to be, not the imperative mood, with an ad- 
verb, but the indicative and infinitive, with a noun and prep- 
osition ; for they are equivalent to " I desire you to depart in 
an instant." The superlative degree in this sentence, " Of all 
acquirements virtue is the most valuable," may pass for the 
comparative, because it conveys the same sentiment as," Vir- 
tue is more valuable than every other acquirement." 

We shall not pursue this subject any further, as the reader 
must be satisfied, that only the word desire, in the equivalent 
sentence, implies affirmation ; and that one phrase may, in 
sense, be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature 
is essentially different. 

To verbs belong number, person, mood, and tense. 

Section 2. Of Number and Person. 

Verbs have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural, 
as, " I run, we run," &c. 

Tn each number there are three persons ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. 1 love. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Ye or you love. 

Third Person. He loves. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some parts of it, varies its endings, to ex- 
press, or agree with, different persons of the same number : 
as, " I love, thou lovest ; he loveth, or lovis :" and also to ex- 
press different numbers of the same person : as " thou lovest, 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

ce love ; he loveth, they love." In the plural number of the 
verb, there is no variation of ending to express the different 
persons ; and the verb, in the tbrree persons plural, is the 
same as it is in the first person singular. Yet this scanty pro- 
vision of terminations is sufficient for all the purposes of dis- 
course, and no ambiguity' arises from it : the verb being al- 
ways attended, either with the noun expressing the subject 
acting or acted upon, or with the pronoun representing it. 
For this reason, the plural termination in en, they loven, they 
wertn, formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and has 
long been obsolete. 

Section 3. Of Moods and Participles. 

Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, show- 
ing the manner in which the being, action, or passion, is 
represented. 

The nature of a mood may be more intelligibly explained 
to the scholar, by observing, that it consists in the change 
which the verb undergoes, to signify various intentions of the 
mind, and various modifications ana circumstances of action : 
which explanation, if compared with the following account 
and uses of the different moods, will be found to agree with 
and illustrate them. 

There are five moods of verbs, the indicative , the im- 
perative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the in- 
finitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing : as, " He loves, he is loved :" or it asks a ques- 
tion : as, " Does he love ?" " Is he loved ?" 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, entreating, or permitting : as, " Depart thou ; mind 
ye ; let us stay ; go in peace." 

Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of 
command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature, 
even in the humblest supplications of an Inferior being to one 
who is infinitely his superior : as, " Give us this day our 
d;iily bread ; and forgive us our trespasses." 

The Potential Mood implies possibility or liberty, pow- 
er, will, or obligation : as, " It may rain ; he may go or 
stay, I can ride ; he would walk ; they should learn." 

The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a con- 
dition, motive, wish, supposition, &e.; and is preceded by 
a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
another verb : as, " I will respect him, though lie chide 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

me ;" " Were he good, he would be happy :' ; that is, " if 
he were good." — See note 8 to Rule 19. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
person ; as, " to act, to speak, to be feared." 

The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives 
its name from its participating, not only of the properties 
of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : as, " I am de- 
sirous of knowing him ;" " admired and applauded, he 
became vain ;" " Having finished his work, he submitted 
it," &c. 

There are three participles, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect : as, " lov- 
ing, loved, having loved." 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, Ave Lave 
represented the present participle, as active ; and the past, 
as passive : but they are not uniformly so : the present is 
sometimes passive ; and the past is frequently active. Thus, 
{i The youth ivas consuming by a slow malady ;" " The 
Indian was burning by the cruelty of his enemies ;" appear 
to be instances of the present participle being used passively. 
" He has instructed me ;" " I have gratefully repaid his kind- 
ness ;" are examples of the past participle being applied in an 
active sense. We may also observe, that the present parti- 
ciple is sometimes associated with the past and future tenses 
of the verb ; and the past, participle connected with the pres- 
ent and future tenses. — The most unexceptionable distinction 
which grammarians make between the participles, is, that the 
one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state, 
denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of it. 
Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action 
begun and not ended : as, " I am writing a letter." The past 
participle signifies action perfected, or finished: as, " I have 
written a letter ;" " The letter is written."* 

The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by the 
former's expressing the idea of time, and the hitter's denoting 
only a quality. The phrases, " loving to give as well as to re- 
ceive," " moving in haste," " heated with liquor," contain par- 
ticiples giving the idea of time ; but the epithets containedin 
the expressions, " a loving child," " a moving spectacle," " a 
heated imagination," mark simply the qualities referred to, 
without any regard to time ; and may properly be called 
participial adjectives. 

* When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect ; when 
it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denominated passive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they 
also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns, in the same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should 
be comprehended in the general name of verbs. That they 
are mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition of a 
verb be admitted : for they signify being, doing, or suffering, 
with the designation of time superadded. But if the essence 
of the verb be made to consist in affirmation or assertion, not 
only the participle will be excluded from its place in the verb, 



but the infinitive itself also ; which certain ancient 



gr;r 



rians of great authority held to be alone the genuine verb, 
simple and unconnected with persons and circumstances. 

The following phrases, even when considered in themselves, 
Know that participles include the idea of time: "The letter 
being written, or having been written ;" " Charles being writing, 
having written, or having been writing X, But when arranged 
in an entire sentence, wiiich they must be to make a com- 
plete sense, they show it still more evidently : as, " Charles 
baviner written the letter, sealed and despatched it." — The 
participle does indeed associate with different tenses of the 
Verb: as, "I am writing," "I was writing," "I shall be wri- 
ting :'' but this forms no just objection to its denoting time. 
If the time of it is often relative time, this circumstance, far 
from disproving, supports our position.f See observations under 
Mule 13 of Syntax. 

Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, 
and are used as such ; as in the following instances : " The 
beginning ;" " a good understanding;" ' excellent writing £ 
61 The chancellors being attached to the king secured bis 
crown :" " The general's having failed in this enterprise oc- 
casioned his disgrace ;" "John's having been writing a long 
time had wearied him." 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples, per- 
form the office of substantives, and may be considered as 
rsuch, will be evident, if we reflect, that the first of them has 
exactly the same meaning and construction as, " The chan- 
cellor's attachment to the king, secured his crown ;" and that 
the other examples will bear a similar construction. The 
words, being attached, govern the word chancellor's in the 
possessive case, in the one instance, as clearly as attachment 
governs it in that case, in the other : and it is only substan- 

t From the very nature of time, an action may be present now, it may Aim 
ieen present formerly, or it may be present at some future poind — yet who ever 
supposed, that the present of the indicative denotes no time ? 

Encyclopaedia Britxiwica. 
19b 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tives, or words and phrases which operate as substantives* 
that govern the genitive or possessive case. 

The following sentence is not precisely the same as the 
above, either in sense or construction, though, except the 
genitive case, the words are the same ; " The chancellor, be- 
ing attached to the king, secured his crown.'' In the former, 
the words, being attached, form the nominative case to the 
verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect ; in the latter, 
they are not the nominative case, and make only a circum- 
stance to chancellor, which is the proper nominative. It may 
not be improper to add another form of this sentence, by 
which the learner may better understand the peculiar nature 
and form of each of these modes of expression : "The chan- 
cellor being attached to the king, his crown was secured." 
This constitutes what is properly called, the Case Absolute. 
Section. 4. Remarks on the Potential Mood. 

That the Potential Mood should be separated from the 
subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion 
which are produced by their being blended together, and 
from the distinct nature of the two moods ; the former of 
which may be expressed without any condition, supposition 
^'c. as will appear from the following instances : " They 
might have done better ;" " We may always act uprightly ;" 
" He was generous, and would not take revenge ;" "We 
should resist the allurements of vice ;" " I could formerly in- 
dulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think but with 
pain.'' 

Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential 
Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coincides 
with the Indicative. But as the latter "simply indicates or 
declares a thing," it is manifest that the former, which mod- 
ifies the declaration, and introduces an idea materially dis- 
tinct from it, must be considerably different. " I can walk," 
" I should walk," appear to be so essentially distinct from the 
simplicity of, " I walk," " 1 walked," as to warrant a corres- 
pondent distinction of moods. The Imperative and Infini- 
tive Moods, which are allowed to retain their rank, do not 
appear to contain such strong marks of discrimination from 
the Indicative, as are found in the Potential Mood. 

There are other writers on this subject, who exclude the 
Potential Mood from their division, because it is formed, not 
by varying the principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary 
verbs may, can, might, could, would, $*c. : but if we recollect, 
that moods are used " to signify various intentions of the 
mind, and various modifications and circumstances of action," 



ETYMOLOGY 57 

we shall perceive that those auxiliaries, far from interfering 
with this design, do, in the clearest manner, support and ex- 
emplify it. On the reason alleged by these writers, the great- 
er part of the Indicative Mood must also be excluded; as 
but a small part of it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The 
Subjunctive too will fare no better ; since it so nearly resem- 
bles' the Indicative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, 
expressed or understood, which do not more effectually show 
the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do 
which are used to form the Potential Mood. 

Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent 
than we have assigned to them. They assert that the Eng- 
lish language may be said, without any great impropriety, to 
have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs ; and they al- 
lege, in support of their opinion, that the compound expres- 
sion which they help to form, point out those various disposi- 
tions and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by 
moods. This would be to multiply the moods without ad- 
vantage. It is, however, certain, that the conjugation or va- 
riation of verbs, in the English language, is effected, al- 
most entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We must, 
therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance ; 
and do that by their assistance, which has been done in the 
learned languages, (a few instances to the contrary excepted,) 
in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb 
itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set proper bounds 
to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexi- 
ty, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, 
therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary 
verb, and introducing moods Interrogative., Optative, Promis- 
sive, Hortative, Precative, £,*c. we have exhibited such only 
as are obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calcu- 
lated to unfold and display the subject intelligibly to the learn- 
er, seem to be sufficient, and not 'more than sufficient, to an- 
swer all the purposes for which moods were introduced. 

From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their 
decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, on the 
principles and construction of languages, which, in these 
points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ 
considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical 
schemes that are not very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, 
and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner. 
Section 5. Of the Tenses. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to ad- 
mit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it 

24b 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations, viz. 
the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluper- 
fect, and the first and second future tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, as 

fassing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, " I rule ; 
am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, 
^•c. at present existing : as, " He is an able man ;" " She is 
an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking of actions 
continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; 
as, " He frequently rides ;" " He walks out every morning ;" 
"He goes into the country every summer." We sometimes 
apply this tense even to persons long since dead : as, " Sen- 
eca reasons and moralizes well ;'' " Job speaks feelingly of 
his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, before, 
after, #s soon as, fyc. is sometimes used to point out the rela- 
tive time of a future action : as, " When he arrives he will 
hear the news ;" " He will hear the news before he arrives, or 
as soon as he arrives, or at farthest, soon after he arrives ;" 
" The more she improves, the more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes 
substituted for the imperfect tense: as, "He enters the terri- 
tory of the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and conquers, 
takes an immense, booty, which he divides amongst his sol- 
diers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, ei- 
ther as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a 
certain time past : as, " I loved her for her modesty and 
virtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them." 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I have 
finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was re- 
commended to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing of 
the letter, though past, was at a period immediately, or very 
nearly, preceding the present time. In the latter instance, 
it is uncertain whether the person mentioned was seen by 
the speaker a long, or short time before. The meaning is, 
" I have seen him some time in the course of a period which 
includes, or comes to,- the present time." When the par- 
ticular time of any occurrence is specified, as prior to the 
present time, this tense is not used : for it would be im- 
proper to say, "I have seen him yesterdiiy •" or, "I have 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

finished my work last week." In these cases the imperfect 
is necessary, as, " I saiv him yesterday ;" " I finished my 
work last week." But when we speak indefinitely of any 
thing past, as happening or not happening in the day, year 
or age, in which we mention it, the perfect must be employ- 
ed : as, " I have been there this morning ;" " I have travelled 
much this year :" " We have escaped many dangers through 
life." In referring, however, to such a division of the day as 
is past before the time of our speaking, we use the imperfect : 
as, "They came home early this morning ;" " He was with 
them at three o'clock this afternoon." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect -tense, both denote a 
thing that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a man- 
ner, that there is still actually remaining some part of the 
time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been 
done i whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, 
in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which 
it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say 
" Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present 
century :" but if we speak of the last centuiy, we say, " Phi- 
losophers made great discoveries in the last century." " He 
has been much afflicted this year ;" " I have this week read the 
king's proclamation ;" "I have heard great news this morn- 
ing :" in these instances, " He has been" "Ihave read" and 
" heard" denote things that are past; but they occurred in 
this year, in this week, and to-day ; and still there remains a 
part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the 
action is connected with the present, time, by the actual exist- 
ence, either of the author, or of the work, though it may have 
been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author 
nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, 
" Cicero has written orations :" but we cannot say, " Cic?ro 
has written poems :" because the orations are in being, but 
the poems are lust. Speaking of priests in general, we may 
say, " They have in all ages claimed great powers ;" because 
the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we 
speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which 
does not now exist, Ave cannot use this tense. We cannot 
say, " The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;' but 
must say, "The Druid priests claimed great powers ;*' be- 
cause that order is now totally extinct. See Pickbourin on 
the English Verb. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing-, not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified 

336 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the sentence : as, " I had finished my letter before he 
arrived." 

The first Future Tense represents the action as yet to 
come, either with or without respect to the precise time : 
as, u The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall see them 
again." 

The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully 
accomplished, at or before the time of another future action 
or event : as, " 1 shall have dined at one o'clock ;" " The 
two houses will have finished their business, when the king 
comes to prorogue them.' ? t 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event 
being spoken of tinder a condition or supposition, or in the 
form of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and contingent, the 
verb itself in the present, and the auxiliary both of the pre- 
sent and past imperfect times, often carry with them some- 
what of a future sense : as, " If he come to-morrow, I may 
speak to him ;" " If he should, or would come to-morrow, I 
might, would, could, or should speak to him.'" Observe also, 
that the auxiliary should and would, in the imperfect times, 
are used to express the present and future as well as the past : 
as, "It is my desire, that he should, or would, come now, or 
to-morrow ; 5 ' as well as, " It Avas my desire, that he. should or 
would come yesterday." So that in this mood the precsie 
time of the verb is very much determined by the nature and 
drift of the sentence. 

(The present, past, and future tenses, may be used either 
definitely or indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. 
When they denote customs or habits, and not individual acts, 
they are applied indefinitely: as, " Virtue promotes happi- 
ness ;" " The old Romans governed by benefits more than by 
fear ;"" " I shall hereafter employ my time more use hIIy."' In 
these examples, the words, promotes, governed, and shall em- 
ploy, are used indefinitely, both in regard to action and time ; 
for they are not confined to individual actions, nor to any pre- 
, cise points of present, past, or future time. When they are 
applied to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the pre- 
cise points of time to which they are confined, they are used 
definitely; as in the following instances, "My brother if 
writing ;" " He built the house last summer, but did not tw- 
habit it till yesterday." " He will write another letter to- 
morrow." 

*Vhe different tenses also represent an action as complete or 

t See an account of the simple and compound tenses 

24b 



ETYMOLOGY. 6l 

perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, " I am 
writing;," " I was writing," " I shall be writing," imperfect, 
unfinished actions are signified. But the following examples, 
" I wrote," " I have written," " I had written," "I shall have 
written," all denote complete perfect action. 

From the preceding representation of the different tenses, it 
appears, that each of them has its distinct and peculiar prov- 
ince ; and that though some of them may sometimes be us- 
ed promiscuously, or substituted one for another, in capes 
where great accuracy is not required, yet there is a real and 
essential difference in their meaning. — It is also evident, that 
the English language contains the six tenses which we have 
enumerated. Grammarians who limit the number to two, or 
at most to three, namely, the present, the imperfect, and the 
future, do not reflect that the English verb is mostly composed 
of principal and auxiliary ; and that these several parts con- 
stitute one verb. Either the English language has no regu- 
lar future tense, or its future is composed of the auxiliary and 
the principal verb. If the latter be admitted, then the aux- 
iliary and principal united, constitute a tense, in one instance ; 
and from reason and analogy, may doubtless do so, in others, 
in which minuter divisions of time are necessary, or useful. 
W hat reason can be assigned for not considering this case as- 
other cases, in which a whole is regarded as composed of sev- 
eral parts/or of principal and adjuncts? There is nothing 
heterogeneous in the pasts : and precedent, analogy, utility, 
and even necessity, authorize the union. 

In support of this opinion, we have the authority of emin- 
ent grammarians ; in particular, that of Dr. Beattie". " Some 
writers," says the doctor, " will not allow any thing to be a 
tense, but what in one inflected word, expresses an affirma- 
tion with time ; for that those, parts of the verb are not prop- 
erly called tenses, which assume that appearance, by means 
of auxiliary words. At this rate, we should have, in lEnglish, 
two tenses only, the present and the past in the active verb, 
and in the passive no tenses at all. But this is a needless 
nicety; and, if adopted, would introduce confusion into the 
grammatical art. If amaveram be a tense, why should not 
amatus futram? U I heard be a tense, I did' hear, I have 
heard, and / shali hear, must be equally entitled to that appel- 
lation." 

The proper form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin 
tongues, is certainly that which it has in the grammars of 
those languages. But in the Greek and Latin grammars, wc 
uniformly find, that some of the tenses are formed by varia- 

I? 25b 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tions of the principal verb ; and others, by the addition of a 
helping verb. It is, therefore, indisputable, that the principal 
vern, or rather its participle, and an auxiliary, constitute a 
regular tense in the Greek and Latin languages. This point 
being established, we maj, doubtless, apply it to English 
verbs ; and extend the principle as far as convenience, and 
the idiom of our language require. 

If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a parti 
ciple and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the verb 
is to be conjugated accordingly, the English noun and pro- 
noun oughtto be declined at large, with articles and preposi- 
tions ; we must object to the inference. Such a moae of de- 
clension is not adapted to our language. This we think has 
been alreadv proved.* It is also confessedly inapplicable to 
the learned languages. Where then is the grammatical in- 
consistency, or the want of conformity to the principles of 
analogy, in making some tenses of the English verb to con- 
sist of principal and auxiliary ; and the cases of English nouns, 
chiefly in their termination ? The argument from analogy, 
instead of militating against us, appears to confirm and estab- 
lish our position. 

We shall close these remarks on the tenses, with a few ob- 
servations extracted from the Encyclopedia Britan.mca. 
They are worth the student's attention, as a part of them ap- 
plies, not only to our views of the tenses, but to many other 
parts of the work. — " Harris (by way of hypothesis) has enu- 
merated no fewer than twelve tenses. Of this enumeration 
we can by no means approve : for, without entering into a 
minute examination of it, nothing can be more obvious, than 
that his inceptive present, "lam going to write," is a future 
tense ; and his completive present, " I have written," a past 
tense. But, as was before observed of the classification of 
words, we cannot help being of opinion, that, to take the ten- 
ses as they are commonly received, and endeavour to ascer- 
tain their nature and their differences, is a much more useful 
exercise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, than 
to raise, as might easily be raised, new theories on the sub- 
ject. v f 

* See page 38. 

t The following criticism affords an additional support to the author's sys- 
tem of the tenses, kc. 
« Under the head of Etymology, the author of this grammar judiciously adheres 
to the natural simplicity of the English language, without embarrassing the 
learner with distinctions peculiar to the Latin tongue. The difficult subject of 
the Tenses, is clearly explained ; and with less encumbrance of technical phrase- 
ology, than in most other grammars." Analytical Revi:-x. 

26b 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

Section 6. The Conjugation of the auxiliary verbs 

to have and to be. 
The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the active 
voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. 

The auxiliary and active verb to have, is conjugated in 
the following manner. 

TO HAVE. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


Pers. 1 have. 


1. We have. 


r> 


Pers. Thou hast. 


2. Ye or you have. 


3. 


Pers. He, she, or 
hath or has. 


[i I 3. They have. 
Imperfect Tense." 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I had 


1. We had. 


2. 


Thou hadst. 


2. Ye or you had. 


3. 


He, fyc. had. 


3. They had. 
Perfect Tense.* 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I have had. 


1. We have had. 


2 


Thou hast had. 


2. Ye or you have had. 


i". 


He has had. 


3. They have had. 
Pluperfect Tense.* 




Singular. 


Plural. 


i. 


I had had. 


1. We had had. 


2. 


Thou hadst had. 


2. Ye or you had had. 

3. They had had. 


3 


He had had. 



* The terms which we have adopted, to designate the three past tenses, may 
not be exactly significant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are 
used by grammarians in general, and have an established authority ; and, espe- 
cially, as the meaning attached to each of them, and their different significa- 
tions, have been carefully explained; we presume that no solid objection can 
be made to the use of terms so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. 
See page 62 and 64. We are supported in these sentiments, by the authority 
of Dr. Johnson. See the first note in his " Grammar of the English Tongue," 
prefixed to hi* dictionary. If. however, any teachers should think it warrant- 
able to change the established names, they cannot perhaps Bnd any more np- 
iate, than the termsjirtt preterit, second preterit, and third prtttrk. — i>ie (he 
Octavo Grainnr.tr. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

3. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. 

3. He will have had. 3. They will have had. 

, "~- Imperative Mood. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


Let me have. 


1. Let us have. 


2. 


Have, or have thou, or do 


2. Have, or have ye, or do ve or 




thou have. 


you have. 


3. 


Let him have. 


3. Let them have.* 



The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three per- 
sons. The command is always addressed to the. second per- 
son, not to the first or third. For when we say, "Let me 
have," " Let him, or let them have," the meaning and con- 
struction are, do Ihou, or do ye. let me, him, or them have. In 
philosophical strictness, both number and person might be en- 
tirely excluded from every verb. They are, in fact, the 
properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of a verb. 
Even the name of the imperative mood, does not always cor- 
respond to its nature : for it sometimes petitions as well as 
commands. But, with respect to all these points, the prac- 
tice of our grammarians is so uniformly fixed, and so analo- 
gous to the languages, ancient and modern, which our youth 
have to study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of inno- 
vation, to deviate from the established terms and arrange- 
ments. See the advertisement at the end of the Introduction ; 
and the quotation from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, page 62. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can have. 1. We may or can have. 

2. Thou mays* or carist have. 2. Ye or you may or can have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would., 
should have. or should have. 

* If such sentences should he rigorously examined, the Imperative will ap- 
pear to consist merely in the word let. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have. would, or should have. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have. or shonld have. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can have had. 1. We may or can have had. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can 

had. have had. 

3 He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had 
Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have had. or should have had. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

had. had. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have had. or should have had.* 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have, f 2. If ve or vou have. 

3. If he have. t 3. If they have. 

The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood, are, in ev- 
ery respect, similar to the correspondent tenses of the indic- 
ative mood \\ with the addition to the verb, of a conjunction, 
expressed or implied, denoting a condition, motive, wish, sup- 
position, fyc. It will be proper to direct the learner to repeat 
all the tenses of this mood, with a conjunction prefixed to 
each of them. See, on this subject, the notes on the nine- 
teenth rule of syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 
present. To have. perfect. To have had. 

Participles. 
present or active. Having. 
perfect. Had. 

compound perfect. Having had. . 

* Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, promise, may be 
considered, as well as their relations should and would, as belonging to the" po- 
tential mood. But as thev generally signify futurity, they have been appro- 
priated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses of the indicative 
and subjunctive moods. 

t Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, in this 
manner. But we presume that this is the form of the verb, considered as a 
principal, not as an auxiliary verb. 

J Except that the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the second 

future tense, require the auxiliary shalt, shall, instead of wilt, will. Thus, " He 

tefUhave completed t he work by midsummer," is the Indicative form : but the 

subjunctive is, "If he shull have completed the work by midsummer/' 

2F 296 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, in 
the form of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the pres- 
ent tense, and second future tense, of verbs generally, and the 
present and imperfect, tenses of the verb to be,) it would be 
superfluous to conjugate it in this work, through every tense. 
But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the 
active and passive voices, are conjugated at large, that the 
learners may have no doubts or misapprehensions respecting 
their particular forms. They to whom the subject of gram 
mar is entirely new, and young persons especially, are much 
more readily and effectually instructed, by seeing the parts o 
a subject so essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before 
them', in all their varieties, than by being generally and curso- 
rily informed of the manner in which they may be exhibited. 
The time employed by the scholars, in consequence of this 
display of the verbs, is of small moment, compared with the 
advantages which thej 7 will probably derive from the plan. 

It may not, however, be generally proper for young per- 
sons beginning the study of grammar, to commit to memo- 
ry all the tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, namely, 
the present and the imperfect, together with the first future 
tense, should, in the first instance, be committed to memory, 
and the rest carefully perused and explained, the business will 
not be tedious to the scholars, and their progress will be ren- 
dered more obvious and pleasing. The general view of the 
subject, thus acquired and impressed, may afterwards be ex- 
tended with ease and advantage. 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, 
to make a few observations in this place, on some of the ten- 
ses, £)*c. The first is, that, in the potential mood, some gram- 
marians confound the present with the imperfect tense : and 
the perfect with the pluperfect. But that they are really dis- 
tinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, correspond- 
ent to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few 
examples : " I wished him to stay, but he would not ;" " I 
could not accomplish the business in time ;" " It was my di- 
rection that he shoidd submit ;" " He was ill, but 1 thought he 
might live ;" tl I may have misunderstood him ;" " He cannot 
have deceived me ;" " He might have finished the work sooner, 
but he could not have done it better.' 1 — It must, however, be 
admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, 
could, would, and should, refer also to present and to future 
time. 

The next remark is, that the auxiliary uill, in the first per- 
son singular and plural of the second future tense ; and the 
auxiliary shall, in the second and third persons of that tense, 



ETYMOLOGY. C)J 

in the indicative mood, appear to be incorrectly applied. 
The impropriety of such associations may be inferred from 
a few examples: " 1 will have had previous notice, whenever 
the event happens ;" "Thou slialt have served thy appren- 
ticeship before the end of the year ;" " He shall have com- 
pleted his business when the messenger arrives." " I shall 
have had ; thou tvilt have served ; he will have completed," 
fyc. would have been correct and applicable. The peculiar 
import of these auxiliaries, as explained under section 7, 
seems to account for their impropriety in the applications 
just mentioned. 

Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of ad- 
mitting the second future, in both' the indicative and subjunc- 
tive moods : but that this tense is applicable to both moods, 
will be manifest from the following examples. "John will 
have earned his wages the next new-year's day," is a simple 
declaration, and therefore in the indicative mood : " If he 
shall have finished his work when the bell rings, he will be 
entitled to the reward," is conditional and contingent, and is 
therefore in the subjunctive mood. 

We shall conclude these detached observations, with one 
remark which may be useful to the young scholar, namely, 
that as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, 
by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, 
^•c. being superadded to it ; so the potential mood may, in 
like manner, be turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen 
in the following examples : " If I could deceive him, I should 
abhor it ;" " Though he should increase in wealth, he would 
not be charitable ;" " Even in prosperity he would gain no 
esteem, unless he should conduct himself better." 

The auxiliary and neuter verb To be, is conjugated as 
follows : 







TO BE. 






Indicative Mood. 






Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 

I am. 

Thou art. 

He, she, or it is. 


Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. Ye or you arc. 

3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
J was. 
Thou wast. 
He was. 


Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. Ye or you were. 

3. They were. 

8lb 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular.. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. Ye or you have been. 
3 He hath or has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

J. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. Ye or you had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or vou shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be. 1. Let us be. 

2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye or you, or do ye be. 

3. Let him be. 3. Let them be. 

Potential Mood. 

Prese?it Tense. 
% Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can be. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Y T e or you may or can be. 

3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should be. or should be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 

been. been. 

3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have 

been. been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have 

been. been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have been. or should have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If ye or you were 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, similar 
to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative mood. See pages 
66, 76, 77, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

Participles. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. 

Compound Perfect. Having been. 

Section 7. The Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their simple 
form ; with observations on their peculiar nature and force. 
The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary 
verbs, to have and to be, could not be conjugated through all 
the moods and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary- 
verbs ; namely, may y can, will, shall, and their variations. 
That auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, and unassisted by 
others, are of a very limited extent ; and that they are chiefly 
useful, in the aid which they afford in conjugating the princi- 
pal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, by a distinct con- 
jugation of each of them, uncombined with any other. They 
are exhibited for his inspection ; not to be committed to mem- 
ory. * 

TO HAVE. 

Present Tense. 
Sing, 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He bath or has. 

Plur. 1. We have 2. Ye or you have. 3. Thev have. 

'3Sb 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 







Imperfect Tens*. 




Sing. 1. 
Plur. 1. 


I had. 
We had. 


2. Thou hadst. 
2. Ye or you had. 


3. He had. 
3. They had. 


Perfect. 


I have had, &,c. Pluperfect. I had had, Uc, 






Participles. 






Present. 


Having. Perfect 

TO BE. 

Present Tense. 


. Had. 


Sing. 1. 
Plxr. 1. 


I am. 
We are. 


2. Thou art. 
2. Ye or you are. 
Imperfect Tense, 


3. He is. 
3. They are. 


Sing. 1 
P/ur. 1. 


I was. 
We were. 


2. Thou wast. 

2. Ye or you were. 

Participles 


3. He was. 
3. They wer 




Present 


Being. Perfect 


Been. 



Sing. 1. I shall* 
Plur. 1. We shall. 



Sing. 1. I should. 
Plur. 1. We should. 



Sing. 1. I will. 
Plur. 1. We will. 



Sing. 1 . I would. 
Plur. 1. We would- 



Sing. 1. I may. 
Plur. 1. We may. 



Sing. 1. 1 might. 
Plur. 1. We might. 



SHALL. 

Present Tense. 
Thou shalt. 3. 

Ye or you shall. 3. 

Imperfect Tense 
Thou shouldst. 3. 
Ye or you should. 3. 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 
Thou wilt. 3. 

Ye or you will. 3. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Thou wouldst. 3. 
Ye or you would. 3. 

MAY. 

Present Tense. 
Thou mayst. 



2. Ye or you may. 
Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou mightst. 
2. Ye or you might. 



He shall. 
They shall. 

He should. 
They should. 



He will. 
They will. 

He would. 
They would. 



He may. 
They may. 



He might. 
They might. 



w Shall is here properly used in the present tense, having the same analogy 
to shoved that can Las to could, mray to might, and -will to would. 

34S 



ETYMOLOGY. 



71 



Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I can. 
We can. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I could, 
We could. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 

1. 


I do. 
We do. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


1. 
1. 


I did. 
We did. 



3. He can. 
3. They can. 

3. He could. 



3. He doth or does. 
3. They do. 

3. He did. 
3. They did. 



Present. 



CAN. 

Present Tense. 
2. Thou canst. 
2. Ye or you can. 
Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou couldst. 
2. Ye or you could. 3. They could. 

TO DO. 

Present Tense. 
2. Thou dost. 
2. Ye or you do. 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. Thou didst. 
2. Ye or you did. 
Participles. 
Doing-. Perfect. Done. 

The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnect- 
ed with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not 
auxiliaries, but principal verbs : as, " We have enough ;" " I 
am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" " They do as they 
please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries : as, 
" I shall have enough ;" " 1 will be grateful," fy-c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear 
from the following account of them. 

Do and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with 
greater energy and positiveness : as, " I do speak truth ;" " I 
did r respect him ;" " Here am I, for thou didst call me." They 
are of great use in negative sentences: as, " I do not fear;" 
" I did not write." They are almost universally employed 
in asking questions: as, " Does he learn ?" "Did he not 
write ?" They sometimes also supply the place of another 
verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same, or a subse- 
quent sentence, unnecessary : as, "You attend not to your 
studies as he does ,*" (i. e. as he attends, ^*c.) " I shall come 
if 1 can ; but if I do not, please to excuse me ;" (i. e. if I 
come not.) 

Let not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhort- 
ing, commanding : as, " Let us know the truth :" "Let me 
die the death of the righteous ;" " Let not thy heart be too 
much elated with success ;" " Let thy inclination submit to 
thy duty." 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doin^ 
a thing ; can and coiud, the power : as, " It may rain ;" " 1 
may write or read ;" " He might have improved more than 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

he has ;" " He can write much better than he could last 
year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes ne- 
cessity : as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we do 
speak, and we must not prevaricate/' 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates reso- 
lution and promising ; in the second and third person, only 
foretels : as, " I will reward the good, and will punish the 
wicked }'' " We will remember benefits, and be grateful ;" 
" Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" " You or they 
will have a pleasant walk/' 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels ; 
in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or 
threatens : as, " 1 shall go abroad ;"' " We shall dine at home ;" 
** Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land :" " Ye shall do 
justice, and love mercy;" " They shall account for their mis- 
conduct." The following passage is not translated accord- 
ing to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall 
and will : " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all 
the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the 
Lord forever ;" it ought to be, " H'ill follow me," and " 1 
shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the 
Thames, and cried out ; " 1 will ; be drowned, no body shall 
help me;" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs ivUl 
and shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for 
when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, for the 
most part, takes place : thus, " I shall go ; you will go ;" ex- 
press event only : but, " will you go ?" imports intention ; 
and, " shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. But, " He 
shall go,'' and "shall he go ?" both imply will; expressing 
or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the sul-.junctive mood, the mean- 
ing of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration ; 
as the learners will readily perceive by a few examples : "He 
shall proceed," " If he shall proceed ;" " You shall consent," 
" If you shall consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes 
interchanged, in the indicative and subjunctive moods, to 
convey the same meaning of the auxiliary : as, " He will not 
return," " If he shall not return ;" " He shall not return," 
" If he will not return." 

Would x primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should, 
fcftligation : but they both vary their import, and are often 
t&eA to express simple event. 



ETYMOLOGY. f$ 

Section 8. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs Active are called Regular, when they form their 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect 
participle, by adding- to the= verb ed, or d only when the 
verb ends in e : as, 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Particip. 


I favour. 


J favoured. 


Favoured. 


I love. 


I loved. 


Loved. 



A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the following 
manner, 

TO LOVE. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love* 1. We lovel 

2. Thou lovest. 2. Ye or you love. 

3 ' H or loves r ^ ^'^ \ 3 ' Th< ^ W 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. Ye or you loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. Ye or you have loved 

3. He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou slialt or wilt love. 2. Ye or you shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

* In the present a:id imperfect tenses, we use a different form of the verb, 
when we mean to express energy and posiiiveness : as, " I do love ; thoti doit 
love ; he does love ; tdid love j thou didst love ; he did love." 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 
Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed 

of the principal, without an auxiliary verb: as, " I love, 1 
loved." The compound tenses are such as cannot be formed 
without an auxiliary verb : as, " I have loved : I had loved j 
I shall or ivill love ; I may love; I may be loved ; I may have 
been loved ;" fyc. These compounds are, however, to be 
considered as only different forms of th,e same verb. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me love. 1. Let us love. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, on 

thou love. do ye love. 

3 Let him love. 3. Let them lov«. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. __ Plural. 

1. I may or can love. 3. We may or can love. 

2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love. 

3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. 

Imperfect Teiue. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, wou a, or 

should love. should love. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst love. would, or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would 

or should love. or should love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Tlura!. 

1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 

loved. loved. 

3. He may or can have lov- 3. They may or can have 

ed. loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. "Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved. should have loved. 

2. Thou mightst, coulds", 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst hr e would, or should have lov- 

loved. ed. 

3. He might, could, wouk 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

2c 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If ve or you love. 

3. J f he love. 3 If they love. 

The remaining tenses of this mood, are, in general, similar 
to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. 

It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, 
that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any 
other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, 
with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed. The instance 
given is sufficient to explain the subject : more would be te- 
dious, and tend to embarrass the learner. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present. To love. Perfect. To Jfcve loved. 

Participles. 

Present. Loving". Perfect. Loved. 

Compound Perfect Having loved. 

Thetactive verb maybe conjugated differently, by adding 
its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be, 
through all its moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, 
thou teachest, he teaches,"" $'c. ; we may say, " I am teach- 
ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching," ^-c. : and instead of 
" I taught," c^c. " I was teaching," e/c. and so on, through all 
the variations of the auxiliary. This mode of conjugation 
has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety ; and con- 
tributes to the harmony and precision of the language. These 
forms of expression are adapted to particular acts, not to 
genera] habits, or affections of the mind. They are very 
frequently applied to neuter verbs ; as, " 1 am musing ; he 
is sleeping. 1 '* 

Some ^grammarians apply, what is called the conjunctive 
termination, to the persons of the principal verb, and to its 
auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. 
But this is certainly contrary to the practice of good wri- 
ters. Johnson applies this termination to the present and 
perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it entirely to the pres- 
ent tense ; and Priestley confines it to the present and imper- 
fect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gramma- 
* As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, performs the office of a 
verb, through all the meeds and tenses; and as it implies the idea of time, 
and governs the objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the <-;\m<- manner as 
- or form of the verb, and ttat 
it cannot be properly considered as a distinct part of speech i 

la 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

rians of such eminence, may have contributed to that diver- 
sity of practice, so observable in the use of the subjunctive 
mood. Uniformity in this point is highly desirable. It 
would materially assist both teachers and learners ; and 
would constitute a considerable improvement in our lan- 
guage. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth ; 
and conceive we are fully warranted by his authority, and 
that of the most correct and elegant writers, in limiting the 
conjunctive termination of the principal verb, to the second 
and third persons singular of the present tense. 

Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respecting 
the extent and variations of the subjunctive mood ; but a 
few of them have even doubted the existence of such a 
mood in the English language. These writers assert, that 
the verb has no variation from the indicative; and that a 
conjunction added to the verb, gives it no title to become a 
distinct mood ; or, at most, no better than it would have, if 
any other particle were joined to it. To these observations 
it may be replied ; 1st. It is evident, on inspection, that, in 
the subjunctive mood, the present tense of the principal 
verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the verb to be, and 
the second and third persons, in both numbers, of the se- 
cond future tense of all verbs ;* require a variation 
from the forms which those tenses have in the indicative 
mood. So much difference in the form of the verb, would 
warrant a correspondent distinction of mood, though the re- 
maining parts of the subjunctive were, in all respects, similar 
to those of the indicative. In other languages, a principle 
of this nature has been admitted, both in the conjugation of 
verbs, and the declension of nouns. 2d. There appears to be 
as much propriety, in giving a conjunction the power of as- 
sisting to form the subjunctive mood, as there is in allowing 
the particle to to have an effect in the formation of the infin- 
itive mood.f 3d. A conjunction added to the verb, shows the 
manner of being, doing, or suffering, which other particles 
cannot show : they do not coalesce with the verb, and modi- 
fy it, as conjunctions do. 4th. It may be said, "If contin- 
gency constitutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of 
a phrase, and not a conjunction, that determines this mood." 
But a little reflection will show, that the contingent sense lies 

* We think it has been proved, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the 
verb to which it relates : tiiat the principal and its auxiliary form but one verb. 

t Conjunctions have an influence on the mood of the following' verb. 

Dr. Beattie. 
Conjunctions have sometimes a government of moods. Dr. Lavitk* 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

in the meaning and force of the conjunction, expressed or 
understood. 

This subject may be farther illustrated, by the following 
observations. — Moods have a foundation in nature. They 
show what is certain ; what is possible; what is conditional ; 
what is commanded. They express also other conceptions 
and volitions ; all signifying the manner of being, doing, or 
suffering. But as it would tend to obscure, rather than elu- 
cidate the subject, if the moods were particularly enumera- 
ted, grammarians have very properly given them such com- 
binations and arrangements, as serve to explain the nature of 
this part of language, and to render the knowledge of it ea- 
sily attainable. 

The grammars of some languages contain a greater num- 
ber of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different 
forms. The Greek and Roman tongues denote them, by 
particular variations in the verb itself. This form, however, 
was the effect of ingenuity and improvement : it is not essen- 
tial to the nature of the subject. The moods may be as ef- 
fectually designated by a plurality of words, as by a change 
in the appearance of a single word; because the same ideas 
are denoted, and the same ends accomplished, by either 
manner of expression. 

On this ground, the moods of the English verb, as well as 
the tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the 
principal verb itself, and partly by the assistance winch that 
verb derives from other words. 

PASSIVE. 

Verbs Passive are called regular, when they form their 
perfect participle by the addition of d or cd, to the verb : 
as, from the verb " To love," is formed the passive, " I am 
loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect par- 
ticiple to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of num- 
ber, person, mood, and tense, in the following manner. 

TO BE LOVED. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

G2 & 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

8. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tease. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He hath or has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singn.ar. Plural. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
[Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be lov- 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

ed. loved. 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 . I shall have been loved. 1 . We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been lov- 2. Ye or you will have been 

ed. loved. 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Let me be lo^ed. 1. Let us be loved. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do 

be loved. ye be loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may or can be loved. I. We may or can be loved. 

2. Thou mayst or canst be 2- Ye or you may or can be 
• loved. loved. 

3. He may or can be loved. 3. They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be loved. • or should be loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be lov- 

loved. ed. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be loved. or "should be loved 

6c 



can have been 



Singular. 

1. I may o 

loved. 

2. Thou may st or canst have 

been loved- 

3. He may or can have been 

loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 
1 



70 



We may or can have been 
loved 

2. Ye or you may or can have 

been loved. 

3. They may or can have 

been loved. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have 
been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

riura 



1. We might, coidd. would, or 

should have been loved. 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have beer, 
loved. 

3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Ifl be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or vou be loved 

3. If he be loved. 3. If "they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2 if thou wert loved. 2. If ye or j'ou were loved. 

o. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general similar 
to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 
66, 76, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of Syntax. 

Infinitive Mcod. 

Perfect. 
To have been loved. 
Participles. 

Bcin£- loved. 

Loved. 

Having been loved. 

When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the prin- 
cipal verb, the auxiliary "goes through all the variations of 
person and number, and the participle itself continues invari- 
ably the same. When there are two or more auxiliaries 
joined to the participle, the first of them only is varied ac- 
cording to person a Tne auxiliary must admits 
of do variation. 

7c 



Present Tense. 
To be loved. 



Present. 

Perfect or Passire. 

Compound Perfect. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The neuter verb is conjugated like the active ; but as it 
partakes somewhat of the nature of the passive, it admits, 

4n many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the 
leuter signification : as, " 1 am arrived ;" " I was gone ;" " 1 
am grown." The auxiliary verb, am, was. in this case, pre- 
cisely defines the time of the action or event, but does not 
change the nature of it ; the passive form still expressing, not 
properly a passion, but oniy a state or condition of being. 

Section 9. Observations on Passive Verbs. 

Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no Passive 
Verbs in the English language, because we have no verbs of 
this kind with a peculiar termination, all of them being form- 
ed by the different tenses of the auxiliary to be, joined to the 
passive participle of the verb. This is, however, to mistake 
the true nature of the English verb ; and to regulate it, not 
on the principles of our own tongue, but on those of foreign 
languages. The conjugation, or the variation, of the English 
verb, to answer all the purposes of verbs, is accomplished by 
the means of auxiliaries ; and if it be alleged that we have 
no passive verbs, because we cannot exhibit them without 
having recourse to helping verbs, it may with equal truth be 
said, that we have no pe? feet, pluperfect, or future tense,'m the 
indicative or subjunctive mood ; since these, as well as some 
other parts of the verb active, are formed by auxiliaries. 

Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxili- 
ary to conjugate some of their tenses ; namely, the former, in 
the preterit of the optative and subjunctive moods ; and the 
latter, in the perfect and pluperfect of the indicative, the per- 
fect, pluperfect, and future, of the subjunctive mood, and the 
perfect of the infinitive. The deponent verbs, in Latin, re- 
quire also an auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses. 
This statement abundantly proves that the conjugation of a 
verb in the learned languages does not consist solely in vary- 
ing the form of the original verb. It proves that these lan- 
guages, like our own language, sometimes conjugate with an 
auxiliary, and sometimes without it. There is, indeed, a 
difference. What the learned languages require to be done, 
in some instances, the peculiar genius of our own tongue 
obliges us to do, in active verbs, principally, and in passive 
ones, universally. In short, the variation of the verb, in 
Greek and Latin, is generally accomplished by prefixes, or 
terminations, added to the verb itself; in English, by the ad- 
dition of auxiliaries. 

The English tongue is, in many respects, materially differ- 
ent from the learned languages. It is, therefore, very possi- 

8c 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

ble to be mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and perplex oth- 
ers, by an undistinguishing attachment to the principles and 
arrangement of the Greek and Latin Grammarians. Much 
of the confusion and perplexity, which we meet with in the 
writings of some English Grammarians, on the subject of 
verbs, moods, and conjugations, has arisen from the 'misap- 
plication of names. We are apt to think, that the. old names 
must always be attached to the identical forms and things to 
which they were anciently attached. But if we rectify this 
mistake, and properly adjust the names to the peculiar forms 
and nature of the things incur own language, we shall be 
clear and consistent in our ideas ; and, consequently, better 
able to represent them intelligibly to those whom we wish to 
inform. 

The observations which we have made under this head, 
and on the subject of the moods in another place, will not 
apply to the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require 
us to adopt names and divisions similar to those of the Greek 
and Latin languages : for we should then have more cases 
than there are prepositions in connexion with the article and 
noun ; and after all, it would be a useless, as well as an un- 
wieldy apparatus ; since every English preposition points to, 
and governs, but one case, namely the objective ; which is 
also true with respect to our governing verb's and participles. 
But the conjugation of an English verb in form, through all 
its moods arid tenses, by means of auxiliaries, so far from be- 
ing useless or intricate, is a beautiful and regular display of 
it, and indispensably necessary to the language. 

Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground 
that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the 
English tongue, in the forms for which we have contended, 
we should also admit the dual number, the paulo post future 
tense, the middle voice, and all the moods and tenses, which 
are to be found in Greek and Latin. But this objection, 
though urged with much reliance on its weight, is not well 
founded. If the arrangement of the moods, tenses, ^'c. which 
we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our tongue ; and 
the principle, on which they are adopted, is extended as far 
as use ana convenience require ; where is the impropriety, in 
arresting our progress, and fixing our forms at the point of 
utility ? A principle may be warrantable adopted, and car- 
ried to a precise convenient extent, without subjecting its 
supporters to the charge of inconsistency, for not pursuing it 
beyond the line of use and propriety. 

The importance of giving the ingenious student clear and 
just ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and tenses, will 

9c 



82 E-NGLISH GRAMMAR. 

apologize for the extent of the Author's remarks on these 
subjects, both here and elsewhere, and for his solicitude to 
simplify and explain them. — He thinks it has been proved, 
that the idiom of our tongue demands the arrangement he 
has given to the English"verb ; and that, though the learned 
languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in 
general, differently constructed from the English tongue, yet, 
in some resp« cts, they are so similar to it, as to warrant the 
principle which he has adopted. 

Section 10. Of Irregular Verbs. 
Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their im- 
perfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the addition 
of d or ed to the verb : as, 

Present. Imperfect, Perfect Part. 

I begin, I began, begun. 

I know, I knew, known. 

Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 

1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and per- 
fect participle, the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part 

Cost, cost, cost. 

Put, put, put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, 
the same : as, 

Present. Imperfect, Perfect Part. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Sell, sell, sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, 
different: as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Arise, arose, arisen. 

Blow, blew, blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, " feed, 
fed ; leave, left :" others by the termination en ; as, " fall, 
fell, fallen :" others by the termination ght; as, " buy, bought ; 
teach, taught," fyc 

The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presu- 
med, be found both comprehensive and accurate. 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part. 

Abide, abode, abode. 

Am, was, been. 

Arise, arose, arisen. 

Awake, awoke, r. awaked. 

iOc 



Present 

Bear, to bring forth, 
Bear, to carry. 
Beat, 
Begin, 
Bend, 
Bereave, 
Beseec 
Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Eleed, 
Blow, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 
Burst, 
Buy, 
Cast, 
Catch, 
Chide, 
Choose, 

Cleave, to slick or J 
adhere, $ 

Cleave, to split, 
Cling, 
Clothe, 
Come, 
Cost, 
Crow, 
Creep, 
Cut, 

Dare, to venture, 
Dare, r. to challenge 
Deal, 
Dig, 
Do, 
Draw, 
Drive, 
Drink, 
Dwell, 
Eat, 
Fall, 
Feed, 
Feel, 

Find. 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Forget, 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass Tart. 


bare, 


born. 


bore, 


borne. 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


began, 


begun. 


bent, 


bent. I 


bereft, R. 


bereft, r. 


besought, 


besought. 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


bound, 


bound. 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


bled, 


bled. 


blew, 


blown. 


broke, 


broken. 


bred, 


bred. 


brought, 


brought. 


built, 


built 


burst, 


burst. 


bought, 


bought. 


cast", 


cast. 


caught, R. 


caught, r. 


chid, 


chidden, chid 


chose, 


chosen. 


REGULAR. 




clove, or cleft, 


cleft, cloven, 


clung. 


clung. 


clothed, 


clad, < 


came, 


come. 


cost, 


cost. 


crew, ?•. 


crowed. 


crept, 


crept. 


cut, 


cut. 


durst, 


dared. 


dealt, r. 


dealt, r. 


ar 


dug, r. 


done. 


drew, 


drawn. 


drove, 


driven. 


drank, 


drunk. 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


eat, or ate, 


eaten. 


fell, 


fallen. 


fed, 


fed. 


felt; 


felt. 


fought, 


fought. 


found, 


found. 


(led, 


fled. 


flung, 


flung. 


flew, 


flown. 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot 



hS 



84 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Ferf. or Pass. Part. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got* 


Gild, 


gilt, r. 


gilt, r. 


Gird, 


girt, r. 


girt, r. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 
had, 


grown. 


Have, 


had. 


Hang, 


hung, r 3 


hung, r. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heai'd. 


Hew, 


hewed} 


hewn, r. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit, r. 


Know 


knew. 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent, 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie, to lie down 


lay, 


lain. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown, r. 


Fay, 


paid-. 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid, 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode, ridden.t 


Ring. 


rung, rang. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, r. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen, 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought, 
sold. 


Sell, 


sold, 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten is still in good u 
} Ridden is nearly obsolete. 





ETYMOLOGY. 


s 


Present 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven, r. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r 


Show, 


showed 


shown. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot. 


shot, 


shot. 


Shrink 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 
Sink 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep. 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide,' 


slid, 


slidden. 


Sling, 
Slink, 


slung, 


slung. 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


Slit, r. 


slit, or slitted. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, r. 


Speak, 


spoke. 


spoken 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent, 


Spill, 


spilt, j'. 


spilt, r. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, spat, 


spit, spitten* 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 


stung. 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Sirivej 


strove, 


striven. 


Show or strew, 


strowed or strewed, 


< strown, strowt^ 
} strewed. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


swot, r. 


swet, r. 


Swell, 
Swim, 


swelled, 


swollen,, t. 


swum, swam, 


swum. 



85 



* Spitten is nearly obsolete. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


Swing - , 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, r 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought or worked 


Wring-, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to bh 
conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and those which 
admit of the regular form are marked with an r. There is a 
preference to be given to some of these, which custom and 
judgment must determine. Those preterits and participles 
which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be most eligible. 
The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular 
only in familiar writing or discourse, and which are improp- 
erly terminated by t, instead of ed : as, learnt, spelt, spilt, Hfc. 
These should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, 
however, proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into 
t, are unexceptionable : and others, the only established forms 
of expression : as crept, gilt, ^-c. : and lost, felt, slept, ^c. 
These allowable and necessary contractions must therefore 
be carefully distinguished by the learner, from those that are 
exceptionable. The words which are obsolete have also been 
omitted, that the learner might not be induced to mistake 
them for words in present use. Such are, wreathen, drunk- 
en, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, bounden, £,-c. : and swang, 
wrang, slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare, ware, fyc. 

Section 11. Of Defective Verbs; and of the different ways in 
which verbs are conjugated. 

Defective verbs are those which are used only in 
some of their moods and tenses. 

He 



Present. 

Can, 

May. 



Shall, should, 

Will, ' would, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

: quoth, 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

TJie principal of them are these. 

Imperfect. Perf. or Pass. Part 

could, ■ ' ' 

S'ht, 



That the verbs must and oueM have both a present and 
past signification, appears from the following sentences : * 1 
must own that I am to blame ;" " He must ha^e been mis- 
taken ;" " Speaking things which they ought not ;' " Ihese 
ought ye to have done." 

In most languages there are some verbs which are detec- 
tive with respect to persons. These are denominated imper 
sonal verbs. They are used only in the third person, because 
they refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated to that person ; 
as, " It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders. But 
as the word impersonal implies a total absence of persons, it 
is improperly applied to those verbs which have a person : 
and hence it is manifest, that there is no such thing in Eng- 
lish, nor indeed, in any language, as a sort of verbs really im- 
personal. . , 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, reg- 
ular and irregular, simple and compounded* taken together, 
is about 4300. The number of irregular verbs, the defective 
included, is about 177.* 

Some Grammarians have thought that the English verbs, 
as well as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other lan- 
guages, might be classed into several conjugations ; and that 
the three different terminations of the participle might be the 
distinguishing characteristics. They have accordingly pro- 
posed three conjugations ; namely, the first to consist ol verbs, 
the participles of which end in ed, or its contraction t; tne 
second, of those ending in ght ; and the third of thosfe m en. 
But as the verbs of the first conjugation, would so greatly ex- 
ceed in number those of both the others, as may be seen by 
the preceding account of them ; and as those of the third con- 
jugation are so various in their form, and incapable of being 
reduced to one plain rule ; it seems better in practice, as Dr. 
Lowth justly observes, to consider the first in ed as the oniy 
regular form, and the other as deviations from it ; after the 
example of the Saxon and German Grammarians. 

* The whole number of words, in the English language, is about thirty-five 
thousand. , ,, 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Before we close thj£ account of the verbs, it may afford in- 
struction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly 
than they have been, that different nations have made use of 
different contrivances for marking the tenses and moods of 
their verbs. The Greeks and Latins distinguish them, as well 
as the cases of their nouns, adjectives, and participles, by 
varying the termination, or otherwise changing the form of 
the word ; retaining, however, those radical letters, which 
prove the inflection to be of the same kindred with its root. 
The modern tongues, particularly the English, abound in 
auxiliary words, which vary the meaning of the noun, or the 
verb, without requiring any considerable varieties of inflection. 
Thus, I do love, 1 did love, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
have the same import with amo, amabam, amavi, amaveram 
amabo. It is obvious, that a language, like the Greek and 
Latin, which can thus comprehend in one word the meaning 
of two or three words, must have some advantages over 
those which are not so comprehensive. Perhaps, indeed, it 
may not be more perspicuous ; but, in the arrangement of 
words, and consequently in harmony and energy, as well as 
in conciseness, it may be much more elegant. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Of Adverbs. 

An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some 
quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads well; 1 ' 
" A truly good man ;" " He writes very correctly . " 

Some adverbs are compared, thus ; " Soon, sooner, 
soonest ;" " often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending in 
ly, are compared by more and most : as, " Wisely, more 
wisely, most wisely. 7 ' 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express 
compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have re- 
o^ired two or more : as, " He acted wisely," for, he acted 
with wisdom ; " prudently," for with prudence ; " He did it 
here," for, he did it in this place ; " exceedingly," for, to a 
great degree ; " often and seldom," for many, and for few 
times : " very," for, in an eminent degree, ^-c. 

There are many words in the English language that are 
sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, 
" More men than women were there:" or, "I am more dili- 
gent than he ." In the former sentence more is evidently an 
adjective, and in the latter, an adverb. There are others that 
are sometimes used as substantives, and sometimes as ad- 

16c 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

verbs : as, " To-day's lesson is longer, than yesterday's ;" 
here to-day and yesterday are substantives, because they are 
words that make sense of themselves, and admit besides of 
a genitive case : but in the phrase, " Pie came home yester- 
day, and sets out again to-day," they are adverbs of time ; 
because they answer to the question when. The adverb 
much is used as all three : as, " Where much is given, much is 
required ;" " Much money has been expended ;" " It is much 
better to go than to stay," In the first of these sentences, 
much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and 
in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the sense can 
determine what they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to cer- 
tain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, 
Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirma- 
tion, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Of number : as, " Once, twice, thrice," ty-c. 

£. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, 
lastly, finally," fyc. 

3. Of place : as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, 
upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, hence, 
thence, whithersoever," ^c. 

4. Ov %,me. 

Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," ^"c. 

OUime past : as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, here- 
tofore, hitherto, long since, Jong ago," ^-c. 

Oftimeto come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
forth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, imme- 
diately, straightways," &/c. 

Of time indefinite : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, 
sometimes, soon^ ^seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, al- 
ways, when, then, ever, never, again," &fc. 

5. Of quantity : as " Much, little, sufficiently, how much, 
how great, enough, abundantly," ^-c. 

6. Of manner or quality: as, "Wisely, foolishly, justly, 
unjustly, quickly, slowly," 6,-c. Adverbs'of quality are ttie 
most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by ad- 
ding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or chang- 
ing le into ly : as, "Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, 
ably ; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibty, per- 
chance." 

8. Of affirmation : as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubt- 
less, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," $*c. " 

2H lie 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Of negation : as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at 
all, in no wise," fy-c. * 

10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, wheth- 
er," &fC. 

1 1. Of comparison : as, " More, most, better, best, worse, 
worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," $-c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, theve are many 
which are formed by a combination of several of the prepo- 
sitions with the adverbs of place here, there, and where : as, 
" Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto ; here- 
by, thereby, whereby ; herewith, thereAvith, wherewith ; here- 
in, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there for,) wherefore, 
(i. e. where for,) hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, 
w r hereupon or whereon, ^*c. Except therefore, these are sel- 
dom used. 

In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but 
becomes an adverb merely by its application : as when we 
say, " he rides about;" "he was near falling ;" " but do not 
after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of 
nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, fyc. : as, " Aside, 
athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, .ashore, abed, aground, 
afloat," fyc. 

The words when and where, and all others of the same na- 
ture, such as, whence, whither, whenever, whertwr, $'c. may be 
properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they partici- 
pate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions : of con- 
junctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of adverbs, as they de- 
note the attributes either of time or of place. 

It may be particularly observed with respect to the word 
therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining senten- 
ces, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives 
that sense, and also connects/it is a conjunction : as, " He is 
good, therefore he is happy.'' The same observation mav be 
extended to the words consequently, accordingly, and the like. 
"When these are subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, ^*c. 
they are adverbs, the connexion being made without their 
help : when they appear single, and unsupported by any oth- 
er connective, they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity 
there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with 
tenses, to show that circumstance. The answer is, though 
tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater distinctions of 
time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses would be a per- 
plexity without end .What a variety of forms must be given 
to the verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, formerly, 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

lately, just now, now, immediately, presently, soon, hereafter, 
fyc. It was this consideration that made the adverbs of time 
necessary, over and above the tenses. 

CHAPTER VIH. 

Of Prepositions. 

Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, 
and to show the relation between them. Thej* are, for the 
most part, put before nouns and pronouns, as, " He went 
from London to York ;*" " She is above disguise ;" " They 
are instructed by him." 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


off 


to 


within 


below 


near 


on or upon 


for 


without 


between 


up 


among 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


after 


with 


under 


from 


before 


about 


in 


tiirpjjgiij 


beyond 


betiind 


against 



Verbs are-crftert compounded of a verb and a preposition 
as, to uphold, to invest, to overlook : and this composition 
sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to understand, 
to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, the prep'osition is 
more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, 
like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect 
the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning ; and may still be 
considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, 
to cast, is to throw ; but to cast up, or to compute, an account, 
is quite a different thing : thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give 
over, £>-c. So that the meaning of the verb, and the proprie- 
ty of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain sylla- 
bles employed, which Grammarians have called insepara- 
ble prepositions : as, be, con, mis, £>x. in bedeck, conjoin, mis- 
take, : but as they are not words of any kind, the)' cannot 
properly be called a species of preposition. 

One great use of prepositions, m English, is ? to express 
those relations, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked 
by cases, or the different endings of nouns. Bee page 58. 
The necessity and use of them will appear from the follow- 
ing examples. If we say, " he writes a pen," " they ran the 
river," "the tower fell* the Greeks," "Lambeth is West- 
minster-abbey," there is observable, in each of these expres- 
sions, either a total want of connexion, or such a connexion 
as produces falsehood or nonscn.se : and it is evident, that, be- 
fore thev car. be turned into sense, the vacancy must be filled 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

up by some connecting word : as thus, " He tvntes with a 
pen ;" "they ran towards the river;" "the tnwer fell upon 
the Greeks ;" " Lambeth is over against Westminster-ab- 
bey." We see by these instances, how prepositions may be 
necessary to connect those words, which in their signifi eat inn 
are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem 
to have denoted relations of place ; but they are now used 
figuratively to express other relations. For example, as they 
who are above have in several respects the advantage of such 
as are below, prepositions expressing high and low places are 
used for superiority and inferiority in general: as, "He is 
above disguise ;" " Ave serve under a'good master ;" " he rules 
over a willing people ;" " we should do nothing beneath our 
character." 

The importance of the prepositions will be further per- 
ceived by the explanation of a few of them. 

Of denotes possession or belonging, an effect or conse- 
quence, and other relations connected with these : as, "The 
house of my friend ;" that is, "the house belonging to my 
friend ;" " He died of a fever ;" that is, " in consequence of 
a fever." 

To, or unto, is opposed to from ; as, " He rode from Salis- 
bury to Winchester." 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or circum- 
stance, ^-c. as, " He loves her for (that is, on account of) her 
amiable qualities." 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agsnt, 
means, 8,-c. ; as, " He was killed by a fall :" that is, " a fall was 
the cause of his being killed ;" " This house was built by 
him ;" that is, " he was the builder of it." 

JVith denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, Sfc. : as-, 
" We \v£ll go with you ;" " They are on good terms ivith each 

other." With also alludes to the instrument or means ; as, 

"He was cut with a knife." 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or 
acting, fyc. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 
17£0 ;' : " He dwells in the city;" "She lives in affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind : 
as, " He retired into the country ;" " Copper is converted 
into brass." 

Within, relates to something comprehended in any place 
or time: as, "They are within the house;" "He began ant} 
finished his work within the limited time." 

The signification of without is opposite to that of within • 

20c 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

as, " She stands without the gate :"' But it is more frequent- 
ly opposed to with ; as, " You may go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions will 
be readily understood, without a particular detail of them. 
"VVe shall, therefore, conclude this head with observing, that 
there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of the 
prepositions by and ivith ; which is observable in sentences 
like the following: "He walks imXh a staff by moonlight;" 
" He was taken by stratagem, and killed with a sword." Put 
the one preposition for the other, and say, " he walks by a 
staff with moonlight/' " he was taken with stratagem, and 
killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that they differ in 
signification more than one, at first view, would be apt to im- 
agine. 

Some, of the prepositions have the appearance and effect 
of conjunctions ; as, " After their prisons were thrown open," 
^*c. " Before I die ;" " They made haste to be prepared 
against their friends arrived :" but if the noun time, which is 
understood, be added, they will lose their conjunctive form ; 
as, " After [the time when] their prisons," $*e. 

The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several 
others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so con- 
sidered : as, " They had their reward soon after ;" " He died 
not long before;" "He dwells above:" but if the nouns time 
and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form ; as, 
"He died not long before thai time" tyc. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Of Conjunctions. 

A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used 
to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, 
to make but one. It sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the 
copulative and the disjunctive. 

The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to con- 
tinue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, 
a cause, &c. : as, " He and his brother reside in Londo 
"I will go if he will 
because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to con- 
nect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposi- 
tion of meaning in different degrees : as, k * Though he was 
frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;'' u They came 
with her, but they went away without her." 

21c 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 

The Copulative, And, if, that, both, then, since, for, be- 
cause, therefore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, un- 
less, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction 
and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. " I r^st 
then upon this argument ;" then is here a conjunction : in the 
following phrase, it is an adverb ; " He arrived then, and not 
before." " I submitted ; for it was vain to resist :" in this 
sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, it is a preposition 
11 He contended for victory only." In the first of the follow 
mg sentences since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is, a 
preposition; and in the third, an adverb: "Since we must 
part, let us do it peaceably :" " I have not seen him since that 
time :" " Our friendship commenced long since." 

Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to con- 
nect sentences : as, " Blessed is the man who feareth theLord, 
and keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun 
and a connective. Nay, the union by relatives is rather closer, 
than that by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two 
or more sentences into one ; but, by the former, several sen 
tences may incorporate in one and the same clause of a sen- 
tence. Thus, "tnouseest a man, and he is called Peter," is a 
sentence consisting of two distinct clauses, united by the cop 
ulative and : but, " the man whom thou seest is called Peter," 
is a sentence of* one clause, and not less comprehensive than 
the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they ap- 
pear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 
** Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom 
or foil)'' governs us." Each of these forms of expression con- 
tains two sentences, namely ; " Duty forbids vicious indulgen- 
ces ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;" " Wisdom gov- 
erns us, or folly governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect 
sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely con- 
nects words, not sentences ; as, " The king and queen are an 
amiable pair;" where the affirmation cannot refer to each ; 
it being absurd to say, that the king or the queen only is an 
amiable pair. So in the instances, " two and two are four :" 
" the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books." 
Prepositions also, as before observed, connect words ; but 
they do it to show the relation which the connected words 
have to each other : conjunctions, when they unite words 



etymology/ 95 

only, are designed to show the relations, which those words? 
so united, have to other parts of the sentence. 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases 
appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never em- 
ployed in joining the members of a sentence ; so there are 
several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, which are 
never employed in the former ; and some that are equally 
adapted to both those purposes: as, again, further, besides, 
Sj-c.'of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, that, so that, fyc. of the 
second ; and but, and, for, therefore, &;c. of the last. 

We shall close this chapter with a few observations on the 
peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a subject 
which will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious student", 
and expand his views of the importance of nis grammatical 
studies. 

" Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunctions. 
The former make speech more concise ; the latter make it 
more explicit. _ Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pro- 
noun and conjunction copulative : conjunctions, while they 
couple sentences, may also express opposition, inference, and 
many other relations and dependences. 

Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their rea- 
sonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that they 
would make much use of conjunctions, or of any other con- 
nectives. Ignorant people, and children, generally speak in 
short and separate sentences. The same thing is true of 
barbarous nations : and hence uncultivated languages are not 
well supplied with connecting particles. The Greeks were 
the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in thf world ; and 
their language, accordingly, abounds more than any other in 
connectives. 

Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of wri- 
ting. In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is requir- 
ed, and every appearance of formality avoided, many of 
them would have a had effect. In passionate language too, 
it may be proper to omit them : because it is the nature of 
violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed sentences, than 
in the way of inference and argument. Books ofaphorisms, 
like the Proverbs of Solomon, have few connectives ; be- 
cause they instruct, not by reasoning, but in detached obser- 
vations. And narrative will sometimes appear very graceful, 
when the circumstances are' plainly told, with scarcely any 
other conjunction than the simple copulative and : which is 
frequently the case in the historical parts of Scripture. 
When narration is full of images or events, the omission of 
connectives may, by crowding the principal words upon one 



96 EN'JLISH GRAMMAR. 

another, give a sort of picture of hurry and tumult, and so 
heighten the vivacity of description. But when facts are to 
be traced drown through their consequences, or upwards to 
their causes ; when the complicated designs of mankind are 
to be laid open, or conjectures offered concerning them ; 
when the historian argues either for the elucidation of truth, 
or in order to state the pleas and principles of contending 
parties; there will be occasion for every species of connec- 
tive, as much as in philosophy itself. In fact, it is in argu- 
ment, investigation, and science, that this part of speech is 
peculiarly and indispensably necessary." 

CHAPTER X. 

Of Interjections. 

Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker: as, " Oh ! I have alienated my friend ; alas ! I 
fear for life :" " O virtue ! how amiable thou art \" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other lan- 
guages, are comprised within a small compass. They are 
o( different sorts, according to the different passions which 
they serve to express. Those which intimate earnestness 
or grief, are, O! oh! ah! alas! Such as are expressive ol 
contempt, are pish ! tush ! of wonder, heigh ! really ! strange ! 
of calling, hem ! ho ! soho ! of aversion or digust,/b/i / fie ! 
away! of a call of the attention, lo ! behold! hark! of re- 
questing silence, hush! hist! of salutation, welcome! hail! 
all hail ! Besides these, several others, frequent in the mouths 
of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but in a grammar 
of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to expatiate on such 
expressions of passion, as are scarcely worthy of being ranked 
among the branches of artificial language. — See the Octavo 
Grammar. 

CHAPTER XI. 

Of Derivation. 

section 1. Of the various ivays in which ivords are derived 

from one another. 

Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their 
various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, 
it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word 
is derived from another. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; vi* 

2-lc 



ETYMOLOGY. 07 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs : as, from " to love,' ' 
comes " lover ;" from " to visit, visiter f from " to survive, 
surviver ;" ^-c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult 
to determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, 
or the noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; 
fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; 
act, to act," 4'c. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs : as, from the substantive salt, comes 
" to salt;" from the adjective warm, "to warm ;" and from 
the adverb forward, "to forward." Sometimes they are 
formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; 
as, from " grass, to graze:" sometimes by adding en; as, 
from " length, to lengthen ;" esp'ecially to adjectives : as, from 
" short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the follow- 
ing manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from 
substantives by adding?/: as, from "Health, healthy; wealth, 
wealthy ; might, mighty," ^*c. 

Adjectives denoting matter out of which any thing is made, 
are derived from substantives, by adding en : as, from " Oak, 
oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from substan- 
tives,'by adding/«Z ; as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, 
fruitful,'" fyc. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminu- 
tion, are derived from substantives, by adding some : as, from 
"Light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," $-c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from substantives, 
by adding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, 
careless ; joy, joyless," fyc. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substantives, 
by adding hj : as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, 
courtly," £fc. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from 
substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termination, when 
added to adjectives, irr lorts diminution, or lessening the 
quality : as, "White, whi -sh ;" i. e. somewhat white. When 

I 25c 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

added to substantives, it signifies similitude, or tendency to a 
character : as, " Child, childish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, by 
adding the termination able; and those adjectives signify ca- 
pacity : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes by 
adding the termination ness : as, " White, whiteness ; swift, 
swiftness :" sometimes by adding th or U and making a small 
change in some of the letters : as, " Long, length ; high, 
height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality 
as the adjectives from which they are derived : as, from 
" base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, 
ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one 
another, that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly im- 

f)ossible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of any 
anguage are very few ; the derivatives form much the great- 
er number. A few more instances only can be given here. 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by 
adding the terminations hood or head, ship, try, wick, rick, dom, 
tan, ment, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as si^nify 
character or qualities: as, "Manhood, knighthood, false- 
hood," £,'C. 

Substantives ending in ship, are those that signify office, 
employment, state, or condition: as, "Lordship, steward- 
ship, partnership," £>-c. Some substantives in ship, are deriv- 
ed from adjectives : as, " Hard, hardship," ^'c. 

Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit: as, 
" Slavery, foolery ,_ prudery," $-c. Some substantives of this 
sort come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &pc 

Substantives ending inuick, rick, and dom, denote domin- 
ion, jurisdiction or condition : as, "Bailiwick, bishoprick, king- 
dom, dukedom, freedom," ^-c. 

Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify pro- 
fession ; as, "Physician, musician," ^'c. Those that end in 
ment and age, come generally from the French, and common- 
ly signify the act or habit : as, " Commandment, usage." 

Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verbs 
or adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, " Drunk, 
drunkard ; dote, dotard." 

Seme substantives have the form of diminutives ; but 
these are not many. They are formed by adding the termin- 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 

ations, kin, ling;, ing, ock, el, and the like : as, " Lamb, lamb- 
kin ; goose, gosling : duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; cock, cock- 
erel," fyc. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing English 
words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other lan- 
guages, must be omitted, as the English scholar is not suppos- 
ed to be acquainted with these languages. The best English 
dictionaries will, however, furnish some information on this 
head, to those who are desirous of obtaining it. The learned 
Horne Tooke, in his " Diversions of Purley," has given an 
ingenious account of the derivation and meaning of many of 
the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. 

It is highly probable that the system of this acute gramma- 
rian, is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepositions, and 
conjunctions, are corruptions or abbreviations of other parts 
of speech. But as many of them are derived from obsolete 
words in our own language, or from words in kindred lan- 
guages, the radical meaning of which is, therefore, either ob- 
scure, or generally unknown ; as the system of this very able 
etymologist is not universally admittea ; and as, by long pre- 
scription, whatever may have been their origin, the words 
in question appear to have acquired a title to the rank of dis- 
tinct species ; it seems proper to consider them as such, in 
an elementary treatise of grammar : especially as this plan 
coincides with that, by which other languages must be taught ; 
and will render the study of them less intricate. It is of 
small moment, by what names and classification we distin- 
guish these words, provided their meaning and use are well 
understood. A philosophical consideration of the subject, 
may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the grammat- 
ical student, when his knowledge ana judgment become 
more improved. 

Section 2. A sketch of the steps, by ivhich the English Lan- 
guage has risen to its present state of refinement. 

Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will prob- 
ably be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be informed of 
some particulars respecting the origin of the English lan- 
guage, and the various nations to which it is indebted for the 
copiousness, elegance, and refinement, which it has now at- 
tained. 

" When the ancient Britons were so havrasscd and oppress- 
ed by the invasions of their northern neighbours, the Scots 
and Picts, that their situation was truly miserable, they sent 
an embassy (about the middle of the fifth century) to the 
Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany, 

27 c 



1 00 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with solicitations for speedy relief. The Saxons accordingly 
came over to Britain, and were successful in repelling the in- 
cursions of the Scots and Picts : but seeing the weak and de- 
fenceless state of the Britons, they resolved to take advant- 
age of it ; and at length established themselves in the greater 
part of South-Britain, after having dispossessed the original 
inhabitants. 

" From these barbarians, who founded several petty king- 
doms in this island, and introduced their own laws, language, 
and manners, is derived the groundwork of the English lan- 
guage ; which, even in its present state of cultivation, and not- 
withstanding the successive augmentations and improve- 
ments, which it has received through various channels, dis- 
plays very conspicuous traces of its Saxon original. 

" The Saxons did not long remain in quiet possession of 
the kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth century, the 
Danes, a hardy and adventurous nation, who had long infest- 
ed the northern seas with their piracies, began to ravage the 
English coasts. Their first attempts were, in general, at- 
tended with such success, that they were encouraged to a 
renewal of their ravages ; till, at length, in the beginning of 
the eleventh century, they made themselves masters of the 
greater part of England. 

" Though the period, during which these invaders occupi- 
ed the English throne, was very short, not greatly exceeding 
half a century, it is highly probable that some change was in- 
troduced by them into the language spoken by those, whom 
they had subdued : but this change cannot be supposed to 
have been very considerable, as the Danish and Saxon lan- 
guages arpse from one common source, the Gothic being the 
parent of both. 

"The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, 
were the Normans, who, in the year 1066, introduced their 
leader William to the possession of the English throne. This 
prince, soon after his accession, endeavoured to bring his 
own language (the Norman-French) into use among his new- 
subjects ; but his efforts were not very successful, as the 
Saxons entertained a great antipathy to these haughty for- 
eigners. In process of time, however, many Norman words 
and phrases were incorporated into the Saxon language : but 
its general form and construction still remained the same. 

"From the Conquest to the Reformation, the language 
continued to receive occasional accessions of foreign words, 
till it acquired such a degree of copiousness and strength, as 
to render it susceptible of that polish, which it has received 
from writers of taste and genius, in the last and present cen- 

23c 



SYNTAX. 101 

turies. During this period, the learned have enriched it with 
many significant expressions, drawn from the treasures of 
Greek and Roman literature ; the ingenious and the fashion- 
able have imported occasional supplies of French, Spanish, 
Italian, and German w r ords, gleaned during their foreign ex- 
cursions ; and the connexions which w r e maintain, through 
the medium of government and commerce, with many remote 
nations, have made some additions to our native vocabulary. 

"in this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo- 
Saxons proceed, through the various stages of innovation, 
and the several gradations of refinement, to the formation of 
the present English tongue." 

See the Twelfth chapter of the Octavo Grammar. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats of 
the agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com- 
plete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite* verb : as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences connected together : as, " Life is short, and art 
is long." " Idleness produces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and com- 
pound, so the members of sentences may be divided likewise 
into simple and compound members: for whole sentences, 
whether simple or compounded, may become members of 
other sentences, by means of some additional connexion ; as, 
in the following example : " The ox knoweth his owner, and 
the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my peo- 
ple do not consider." This sentence consists of two com- 
pounded members, each of which is subdivided into two sim- 
ple members, which are properly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative, 
or explaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, 
or commanding. 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in 
the injinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 

12 29c 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 1. 

An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not 
to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct 
manner : as, " I am ; thou writest ; Thomas is loved." If 
the sentence be negative, the adverb not is placed after the 
auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it has no auxiliary : 
as, " I did not touch him ;" or, " 1 touched him not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, 
the nominative case follows the principal verb or the auxilia- 
ry : as, "Was it he?" "Did Alexander conquer the Per- 
sians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to 
be, to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise fol- 
lows the verb or the auxiliary ', as, " Go, thou traitor !" " Do 
thou go :" " Haste ye away":" unless the verb let be used ; 
as, " Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a 
whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, 
the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of : the attribute 
is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the ob- 
ject is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes 
before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, de- 
noting the object, follows the verb ; as, " A wise man gov- 
erns his passions." Here, a vise man is the subject ; 
governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and Ms passions, 
the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and 
Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with an- 
other, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has 
over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words 
in a sentence, the following rules and observations should 
be carefully studied. 

RULE I. 

A Verb must agree with its nominative case, in number 
and person: as, "I learn ;" " Thou art imprc\8d." 
" The birds sing." 

80c 



Rule 1.) SYNTAX. 103 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this 
rule. "What signifies good opinions, when cur practice is 
bad ?" " what signify." t; There's two or three of us, who 
have seen the work :" " there are.' 1 '' " We may suppose there 
was more impostors than one :" " there ivere more." " I 
have considered what have been said on both sides in this 
controversy :" " what has been said." " If thou would be 
healthy, live temperately :" " if thou wouldsV " Thou sees 
how little has been done:" "thou seest." "Though thou 
cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do some- 
thing :" " canst not, mayst, and shouldsW "Full many a 
flower are born to blush unseen:" u is born." " A con- 
formity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friendship :" 
"prepares us." " A variety of blessings have been conferred 
upon us :" " has been." " In piety and virtue consists the 
happiness of man :" " consists.''' " To these precepts are 
subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims :" " is sub- 
joined." 

* 1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times put as the nominative case to the verb : as, "To see 
the sun is pleasant ;" " To be good is to be happy ;" " A 
desire + .o excel others in learning and virtue is commendable .;" 
V That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the 
human body, and shorten its duration, is very" reasonable to 
believe .;" " To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use 
exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free from 
tumultuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

%. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the parti- 
ciple, ought to have a nominative case, either expressed cr 
implied : as, " Awake ; arise ;" that is, " Awake ye ; arise 

ye." „ -\ 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use 
of the verb without its nominative case. "As it hath pleas- 
ed him of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, ana hath 
preserved you in the great danger," $-c. The verb " hath 
preserved" has here no nominative case, for it cannot be 
properly supplied by the preceding word, "him," which is in 
the objective case. It ought to be, " and as he halh preserved 
you ;" or rather, u and to preserve you." '*"lf the calm in 
which he was born, and lasted so long, had continued 5" "and 
which lasted," ^fC. "These we have extracted from an his- 
torian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were prac- 
tised," ^'c. ; " and they are the same." " A man whose in- 
clinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to 

* The cliiof practical notes tinder each Rule, are regularly numbered, in uuier 
lo make them correspond to the examples in the volume of Exercises. 

31* 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule I. 

manage the business ;" " and who had," fyc. "A cloud gath- 
ering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and may 
quickly break in a storm upon our heads ;" " and which may 
quickly." 

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and 
when an address is made to a person, should belong to some 
verb, either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this 
book ?" " James ;" that is, " James wrote it." " To whom 
thus Adam," that is, "spoke." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nomina- 
tive case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer 
it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the prece- 
ding observation. 

" Whic'i rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince 
would have wanted a great deal of that incense which hath 
been offered up to him." The pronoun it is here the nom- 
inative case to the verb " observed ;" and which rule, is left 
by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. 
This form of expression, though improper, is very common. 
It ought to be, " If this rule had been observed," ^-c. "Man, 
though he has great variety of thoughts, and such from which 
others as well as himself might receive profit and delight, yet 
they are all within his own breast." In this sentence, the 
nominative man stands alone and unconnected with any 
verb, either expressed or implied. It should be, " Though 
man has great variety," £/c. 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which 
may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may 
agree with either of them : but some regard must be had to 
that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that 
which stands next to the verb : as, "His meat ivas locusts 
and wild honey ;" " A great cause of the low state of industry 
were the restraints put upon it ;" " The wages of sin is death. 

5. Whe»} the nominative case has no personal tense of a 
verb, but is put before a participle, independently on the rest 
of the sentence, it is called the case absolute: as, "bhame 
being lost, all virtue is lost ;" " That having been discussed 
long ago, there is no occasion to resume it." 

As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, 
always the nominative, the following example is erroneous, 
in making it the objective. " Solomon was of this mind ; and 
1 have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any 
body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much, 
greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, " he 
only excepted." 

52« 



Rule 1.) SYNTAX. 105 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; 
but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; 
and between the auxiliary, and the verb or participle, if a 
compound tense : as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish 
expressed : as, ' k Confidest thou in me ?" " Read thou ;" 
" Mayst thou be happy !" " Long live the King !" 

2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction 
if: as, " Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden ap- 
peared the king." 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, there, 
then, thence, hence, thus, fy-c. : as, " Here am 1 ;" " There was 
he slain ;" " Then cometh the end ;" " Thence ariseth his 
grief ;" " Hence proceeds his anger ;" " Thus was the affair 
settled." 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to 
be coupled with another sentence : as, " Ye shall not eat of 
it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 

Some grammarians assert, that the phrases, as follows, as 
appears, form what are called impersonal verbs ; and should, 
therefore, be confined to the singular number : as, " The 
arguments advanced were nearly asfolloivs ,*" " The positions 
were as appears incontrovertible :" that is, " as it follows," 
" as it appears." If we give (say they) the sentence a differ- 
ent turn, and instead of as, say such as, the verb is no longer 
termed impersonal ; but properly agrees with its nominative, 
in the plural number : as, " The arguments advanced were 
nearly such as follow ;" " The positions were such as appear 
incontrovertible."* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's state- 
ment, " That as, however and whenever used in English, 
means the same as it, or that, or wliich ;" and who are not 
satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, 
should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the 
form of expression. Thus, the sense of the preceding sen- 
tences, may be conveyed in the following terms. " The argu- 
ments advanced were nearly of the following nature ;" " The 

* These grammarians are supported by genera] usage, ami by the authority 
of an eminent critic on language ami composition. " Wire n a verh is used im- 
personally," says Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, "• it ought un- 
doubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be express* 
ed or understood." Fortius reason, analogy and usage favour this mode ot 
expression: "The condition? of the agreement were aa follows?* and not, as 
fallow. A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted "thi> last form, through 
a mistake of the construction. For the same reason, we ought to say, " I 
shall consider his censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct j" 1 and 
not ' so fax- ay concern.' 

S3c 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 2. 

following are nearly the arguments which were advanced ;" 
" The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow :" 
" It appears that the positions were incontrovertible ;" " That 
the positions were incontrovertible is apparent ;" " The posi- 
tions were apparently incontrovertible." See the Octavo 
Grammar ; the note under Rule I. 

RULE II. 

Two or more nouns, &c. in the singular number, joined 
together by a copulative conjunction, expressed or under- 
stood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing 
with them in the plural number : as, " Socrates and Plato 
were wise : they were the most eminent philosophers of 
Greece :" " The sun that rolls over our heads, the food 
that we receive, the rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us 
of a superior and superintending Power." t 

This rule is often violated; some instances of which are 
annexed. " And so was also James and John the sons of 
Zebedee, who were partners with Simon ;" " and so were 
also." "Alljo}', tranquillity, and peace, even for ever and 
ever, doth dwell ;" " dwell for ever." " By whose power all 
good and evil is distributed ;" "are distributed." "Their 
love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished ;" "are 
perished." " The thoughtless and intemperate enjoyment 
of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and the forgetfulness of 
our being accountable creatures, obliterates every serious 
thought of the proper business of life, and effaces the sense of 
religion and of God;" It ought to be, "obliterate" and "efface." 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distin- 
guishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are very 
different, some authors have thought it allowable to put the 
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singular number : as, 
" Tranquillity and pe«-:ce dwells there ;" "Ignorance and neg- 
ligence has produced the effect ;" " The discomfiture and 
slaughter was very great." But it is evidently contrary to 
the first principles of grammar, to consider two distinct ideas 
as one, however nice ma} r be their shades of difference : and 
if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, 
and ought to be rejected. 

To support the 'above construction, it is said, that the verb 
may be understood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; 
as in the following example. " Sand, and salt, and a mass of 
iron, is easier to bear than a man without understanding." 
But besides the confusion, and the latitude of application, 

* See the exceptions to this rule, at p. 46 of the Key ; 12th edition. 



Rule 2.) SYNTAX 107 

which such a construction would introduce, it appears to be 
more proper and analogical, in eases where the verb is intend- 
ed to be applied to any one of the terms, to make use of the 
disjunctive conjunction, which grammatically refers the verb 
to one or other of the preceding terms in a separate view. 
To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and dis 
junctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, consist- 
ent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that 
" two or more substantives, joined by a' copulative, must al 
ways require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be 
placed in the plural number." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to 
determine, whether one or more of the clauses are to be con- 
sidered as the nominative case ; and consequently, whether 
the verb should be in the singular or the plural number.-' We 
shall, therefore, set down a number of varied examples of 
this nature, which may serve as some government to the 
scholar, with respect to sentences of a similar construction. 
" Prosperity with humility, renders its possessor truly amia- 
ble." "The ship, with all her furniture, ivas destroyed." 
"Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his 
misconduct." " The general also, in conjunction with the 
officers, has applied for redress." " He cannot be justified ; 
for it is true, that the prince, as well as the people, ivas blame- 
worthy." " The king, with his life-guard, has just passed 
through the village." " In the mutual influence of body and 
soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we can- 
not fathom." "Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, con- 
spire to recommend the measure." " Patriotism, morality, 
every public and private consideration, demand our submis- 
sion to just and lawful government." "Nothing delights me 
so much as the works of nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, 
we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers ; 
and we annex them for the reader's consideration. " A long 
course of time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, 
are requisite to produce those revolutions." " The king, 
with the lords and commons,/bn». an excellent frame of gov- 
ernment." "The side A, with the sides B and C, compose 
the triangle." "The fire communicated itself to the bed, 
which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable library, 
were all entirely consumed." It is, however, DTOfH r to ob- 
serve, that these modes of expression do not appear to be 
warranted by the just principles of construction. The words, 
"Along course of time," " The king,*' "The side A," and 
"which," are the true nominatives to the respective verbs 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5, 

In the last example, the word all should^e expunged. As 
the preposition with governs the objective case in English ; and, 
if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, it is 
manifest, that the clauses following with, in the preceding 
sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. 
They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the 
nominative cases. The following sentence appears to be un- 
exceptionable ; and may serve to explain the others. " The 
lords and commons are essential branches of the British con- 
stitution : the king, with them, forma an excellent frame of 
government." * 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined 
together by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, 
in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the 
second person takes place of the third, acid the first of both : 
as, "James, and thou, and I, are attached to our country," 
'" Thou and he shared it between youP 

RULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to 
that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, noun, 
or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separ- 
atel} 7 , it must b,e in the singular number : as, {< Ignorance 
or negligence has caused this mistake ;" " John, James, 
or Joseph, intends, to accompany me ;" " There is, in 
many minds, neither knowledge nor understanding. 7 ' 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A 
man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well 
as read them in a description;"' "read if." " Neither char- 
acter nor dialogue were yet understood ;" " was yet." " It 
must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not 
carry in them robbery or murder ;" " does not carry in if 
" Death, or some worse misfortune, soon divide them." It 
ought to be " divides." 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must 
agree with that person which is placed nearest to it: as, " I 
or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in fault ;" " I, or thou, 
or he, is the author of it ;" " George or 1 am the person." 
But it would be better to say ; " Either I am to blame, or 
thou art," 8,'c. 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or 

* Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence 
would certainly stand better thus: "The king, the lords, and the comiuon*, 
form an excellent constitution." 



Rules 4, 5.) syntax. . 109 

pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the 
plural noun and pronoun : as, " Neither poverty nor riches 
were injurious to him ;" " I or they were offended by it." 
But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can 
conveniently be done, should be placed next to tile verb. 

RULE IV. 

A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a 
verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or 
plural number ; yet not wifnout regard to the import of 
the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as, 
*' Tiie meeting icas large ;" " The parliament is dissolv- 
ed ;" M The nation is powerful '/' u My people do not 
consider : tliey have not known me ; ?? " The multitude 
eagerly pursue pleasure, as their chief good j" " The 
council were divided in their sentiments.*? 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately 
suggest the idea of the number it represents, or whether it 
exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. In 
the former case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the latter, it 
ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The 
peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of 
wooden shoes." U would be better to say, "The peasantry 
go barefoot, and the middle sort make use," £,c because the 
idea in both these cases, is that of a number. On the con- 
trary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which 
nouns of number have verbs plural ; because the ideas thev 
represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind: 
"The court of Rome were not without solicitude." " The 
house of commons were of small weight."- "The house of 
lords were so much influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's 
party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their lead- 
er-" " An army of twenty-four thousand were assembled." 
hat reason have the church of Rome for proceeding in 
manner ?" " There is indeed no constitution <o tame and 
iless of their own defence." "All the virtues of man- 
' 1 are to be counted upon a few finders, but his follies and 
:s are innumerable." Is not mankind in this place a nmm 
oultitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it 
>e in the plural number, their ? 

RULE V. 

rronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and 
nouns for which they stand, in gender and number : as, 
.^his is the friend whom I love : ,J " That is the vice which 

K id 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5 

I hate ;" " The king and the queen had put on their 
robes ;" 7 " The moon appears, and she shines, butthe light 
is not her own." 

The relative is of the same person as the antecedent, 
and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, ^Thou who 
lovesi wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a 
few of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his 
guard. " Each of the sexes should keep within its particu- 
lar hounds, and content themselves with the advantages of 
their particular districts ;" better thus : " The sexes should 
keep w r ithin their particular bounds," ^*c. " Can any one, on 
their entrance into the world, be fully secure that they shall 
not be deceived ?" " on his entrance," and " that he shall." 
"One should not think too favourably of ourselves ;" "of 
one's self.' 1 '' " He had one acquaintance which poisoned his 
principles ;" " who poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, 
either expressed or implied : as, " Who is fatal to others is so 
to himself;" that is, " the man who is fatal to others." 

Who, which, what, and the relative that, though in the ob- 
jective case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also 
their compounds, whoever, lahosoever, fyc, ; as, " He whom 
ye seek ;" " This is what, or the thing which, or that you 
want ;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to 
be exceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are called 
nervous," <^c. It would at least be better to say, " except 
those which are called nervous." 

1. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the 
noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as 
the noun which they represent ; for it would be improper to 
say, " The king he is just ;" " 1 saw her the queen ;" " The 
men they were there.:"' " Many words they darken speech ;" 
u My banks they are furnished with bees." These personals 
are superfluous, as there is not the least occasion for a sub- 
stitute in the same part where the principal word is present. 
The nominative case they, in the following sentence, is also 
superfluous ; " Who, instead of going about doing good, they 
are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." 

2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as 
well as to things : but after an adjective in the superlative de- 
gree, and after the pronominal adjective same, it is generally 
used n preference to who or which : as, " Charles XII. king 
of S eden. was one of the greatest madmen that the world 

2d 



Rule 5.) SYNTAX. Ill, 

ever saw ;" " Catiline's followers were the most profligate 
that could be found in any city." " He is the same man 
thai we saw before." There are cases wherein we cannot 
conveniently dispense with this relative as applied to persons : 
as first, after who the interrogative; "Who that has any sense 
of religion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when per 
sons make but a part of the antecedent; "The woman, 
and the estate, that became his portion, were too much foi 
his moderation." In neither of these examples could any 
other relative have been used. 

S. The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are 
elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding 
substantives : thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast bis 
eyes ;" would have sounded better, if written, " On which 
side soever," ^-c. 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the ob- 
jective case of the personal pronouns, in the place of these 
and those : as, " Give me them books ;" instead of " those 
books." We may sometimes find this fault even in writing : 
as, "Observe them three there." We also frequently meet 
withthose instead of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and 
where there is no particular reference to an antecedent ; as. 
" Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." They 
that, or they who sow in tears. 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal 
pronoun or a demonstrative is preferable, in certain construc- 
tions. " We are not unacquainted with the calumny of tht m 
[or those] who openly make use of the warmest professions." 

5. In some dialects, the word ivhat is improperly used for 
that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing : " They 
will never believe but what I have been entirely to blame." 
i; I am not satisfied but what," &fc. instead of ** but that." 
The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be 
used improperly. " These punishments seem to have been 
exercised in somewhat an arbitrary manner." Sometimes 
we read, " In somewhat of." The meaning is, "in a man- 
ner which is in some respects arbitrary." 

6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to 
persons, that there is generally harshness in the application 
of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the general 
terms man, woman, ifc. A term which only implies tl\e id«V 

rsons, and expresses them by some circumstance or 
epithet, will hardly authorize the use of it: as, "Thai 
tion in England who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary 
pretensions," *' That faction which,'"' would have been better; 

3d 



."12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5. 

and the same remark will serve for the following examples i 
"France, ivho was in alliance with Sweden." "The court, 
who' 1 &,"c. " The cavalry v)ho," £,'c. "The cities ivho aspir- 
ed at liberty." " That party among us who," fyc. " The 
family whom they consider as usurpers." 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is 

[>roperly applied or not : as, " The number of substantial in- 
labitants with whom some cities abound." For when a term 
directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in many- 
cases claim the personal relative. "None of the company 
whom he most affected, could cure him of the melancholy 
under which he laboured." The word acquaintance may 
have the same construction. 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because 
that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection : and there- 
fore the application of the person relative who, in this case, 
seems to be harsh : " A child who." It is still more improp- 
erly applied to aninrals : " A lake frequented by that fowl 
whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 

8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, 
and it does not refer to the person, the pronoun ivho ought 
not to be applied. " It is no wonder if such a man did not 
shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who was but another 
name for prudence and economy." Better thus; "whose 
name was but another word for prudence, $-c." The word 
whose begins likewise to rje restricted to persons ; yet it is 
not done so generally, but that good writers, even in prose, 
use It when speaking of things. The construction is not, 
however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following 
instances : " Pleasure, whose nature, ^-c." " Call every pro- 
duction, whose parts and whose nature," fyc. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which T 
with respect to persons ; and that is when we want to distin- 
guish one person of two, or a particular person among a 
number of others. We should then say, " Which of the two," 
or " Which of them, is he or she ?" 

9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, 
we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it : as when 
we say, " The disciples of Christ, whom we imitate ;" we 
may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his disciples. 
The accuracy and clearness of the sentence, depend very 
much upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, 
so that it may readily present its antecedent to the mind of 
the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or ambiguity. 

10. It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the 

4t 



-\ 



Rule 6.) syntax. " \ 113 

French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our 
best writers: as, " It is either a few great men who decide 
for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious ring- 
leader:" " It is they that are the real authors, though the 
soldiers are the actors of the revolution ;" " It was the here- 
tics that first began to rail," fyc. ; " 'Tis these that early taint 
the female mind." This license in the construction of it is, 
(if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, been certain- 
ly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made 
a very awkward one. "It is wonderful the very few acci- 
dents, which, in several years, happen from this practice." 
' 11. The interjections 0/ Oh ! and Ah! require the objec- 
tive case of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, " O 
me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" But the nominative case in the se- 
cond person : as, " O thou persecutor I" " Oh ye hypo- 
crites !" u O thou, who dwellest," £,*c. 

The neuter pronoun^ by an idiom peculiar to the English 
language, is frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with 
a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender: as, 
** It was I ;" u It was the man or woman that did it" 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and under- 
stood ; thus we say, "As appears, as follows;" for "As it 
appears, as it follows ;" and " May be," for " It may be." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express ; 

1st, The subject of any discourse or inquiry : as, "iniap- 
pened on a summer's day ;" " Who is it that calls on me ?" 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing : as, 
" How is it with you ?" 

Sd, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any ef- 
fect or event, or any person considered merely as a cause : 
as, "We heard her say it was not he,-" " The truth is, il was 
1 that helped her." 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb when no 
nominative comes between it and the verb : as, li The 
master icho taught us ;" u The trees which are planted/*' 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the 
verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own 
member of the sentence : as, " He wlw preserves me, to 
whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is 
eternal. 75 

In the several members of the last sentence, i \e relative 
performs a different office. In the first membe it marks 
the agent : in the second, it submits to the go vert: tnt of the 

K2 A 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule fo 

preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; and in 
the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must be 
in the three different cases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nomina- 
tives, each to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to- 
the former, and the antecedent to the latter verb : as, " True 
philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists 
more in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than 
in great talents and extensive knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction, will illustrate 
both the branches of the sixth rule. The three following 
refer to the first part. " How can we avoid being grateful to 
those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved them- 
selves our real friends I" "These are the men whom, you 
might suppose, were the authors of the work :" " If you 
were here, you would find three or four, whom you would 
say passed their time agreeably :" in all these places it should 
be who instead of whom* The two latter sentences contain 
a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and, there- 
fore, seem to contravene the rule : but the student will reflect, 
that it is not the nominative of the verb with which the rela- 
tive is connected. The remaining examples refer to the se- 
cond part of the rule. " Men of fine talents are not always 
the persons who we should esteem.'' "The persons who you 
dispute with, are precisely of your opinion." " Our tutors 
are our benefactors, who we owe obeaience to, and who we 
ought to love." In these sentences, whom should be used 
instead of wAr>. 

1. "When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, 
the noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the 
same case as that which contains the question : as, " Whose 
books are these ? They are John's." " Who gave them to 
him? We" " Of ichom'did you buy them ? Of a bookseller; 
Mm who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see 
there ? Both him and the shopman." The learner will read- 
ily comprehend this rule, by supplying the words which are 
understood in the answers. — Thus/to express the answers at 
large, we should say, " They are John's books." " We gave 
them to him." "We bought them of him who lives, fyc." 
" We saw both him and the shopman." — As the relative pro- 
noun, when used interrogativel) r , refers to the subsequent 
word or phrase containing the answer to the question, that 
w r ord or phrase may properly be termed the subsequent to 
the interrogative. 



Rules 7,8.) syntax. 115 

RULE VII. 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of 
different persons, the relative and verb may agree in per- 
son with either, according to the sense : as, " I am the 
man who command you ;" or, u I am the man who com- 
mands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, ex- 
presses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more 
perspicuous to say ; " I, who command you, am the man." 
Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by referring 
the relative to different antecedents, Avill be more evident to 
the learner, in the following sentences. "lam the general 
y:\iogives the orders to-day ;" "I am the general, who give 
\he orders to-da}* - ;" that is, " I, who give the orders to-day, 
am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to 
agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that agree- 
ment must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the 
following instance: "lam the Lord that maketh all things ; 
that stretckelh forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. £4. Thus 
far is consistent : The Lord, in the third person, is the ante- 
cedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the. third per- 
son : " I am the Lord, which Lord, or he that maketh all 
things." If /were made the antecedent, the relative and 
verb should agree with it in the first person : as, " Jam the 
"Lord, that make all things, that stretch forth the heavens alone/' 
But should it follow ; " That spreadeth abroad the earth by 
myself;" there would arise a confusion of persons, and a 
manifest solecism. 

RULE VIII. 

Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs 
to a substantive, expressed or understood : as, " He is a 
good, as well as a ?visc man ;" " Few arc happy ;"' that 
is, "persons :" " This is a pleasant walk y' that is, " This 
walk /,9," &c. 

Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with their 
substantives: as, "This book, these books; that sort, 
those sorts ; another road, other roads." 

1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule arc here exhibit- 
ed. "1 have not travelled tbis twenty years ;" " thest twen- 
ty." " 1 am not recommending tfiese kind of sufferings j M 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. 

" this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable present ;" 
" that set." 

1. The word means in the singular number, and the phra- 
ses, " By this mea??5," " By thai means,'" are used by our best 
and most correct writers ; namely, Bacon, Tillotson Atter- 
bury, Addison, Steele, Pope, fyc* They are, indeed, in so 
general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, it 
not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, " By this 
mean ; by that mean ; it was by a mean ;" although it is 
more agreeable to the general analogy of the language. "The 
word means (says Priestley) belongs to the class of words, 
which do not change their termination on account of number 
for it is used alike in both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following 
sentences : " Though he did not succeed, he gained the ap- 
probation of his country ; and with this amends he was con- 
tent." " Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sac- 
rifices of interest." " In return, he received the thanks of his 
employers, and the present of a large estate : these were am- 
ple amends for all his labours." " We have described the 
rewards of vice : the good man's amends are of a different 
nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the 
word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the sin- 
gular number, as it is derived from the French amende, though 
now itis exclusively established in the plural form. If, there- 
fore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in the singular, 
because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind 
of argument may be advanced in favour of the singular 
amende ; and the general analogy of the language may also 
be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the fol- 
lowing remark on the subject before us : " No persons of taste 
will, I presume, venture so far to violate the present usage, 

* " By this means, he had them the more at vantage, being' tired and harass- 
ed wiih a long- march." Bncim. 

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away." — 
"Arid this is nn admirable means to improve men in virtue." — By that vieaViS 
they have rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

" It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means se- 
curing the continuance of his goodness." — ; ' A good character, when established, 
should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further 
good." Atterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." — " He by that means preserves 
bis superiority." Addison. 

" Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

"Which custom bas proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 

Dean Swift* 
U 



Rule 8.) syntax. 117 

and consequently to shock the ears of the generality of read- 
ers, as to say, " By this mean, by that mean.' 1 '' 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means 
in the singular number. They do not, however, speak de- 
cisively on the point ; but rather dubiously, and as if they 
knew that they were questioning eminent authorities as well 
as general practice. That they were not decidedly against 
the application of this word to the singular number, appears 
from their own language : " Whole sentences, whether sim- 
ple or compound, may become members of other sentences 
by means of some additional connexion." — Dr. Lowth's 
Introduction to E?iglish Grammar. 

" There is no other method of teaching that of which any 
one is ignorant, but by means of something already known." 
Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures 
makes no use, as far as the compiler can discover, of the Avord 
mean ; though there are several instances to be found in it 
of the use of means, in the sense and connexion contended 
for. " By this means thou shalt have no portion on this side 
the river." Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death." cy-c. 
Heb. ix. 15. It will scarcely be pretended, that the transla- 
tors of the sacred volumes did not accurately understand the 
English language ; or that they would have admitted one 
form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their de- 
termination been conformable to the best usage. An attempt 
therefore to recover an old word, so long since disused by 
the most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful 
especially as the rejection of it is not attended with any in- 
convenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a 
great majority of them, corroborated by general usage, 
forms, during its continuance, the standard of language ; es- 
pecially, if, in particular instances, this practice continue after 

" There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a 

vietmiof obeying-, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Young. 

"He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing 
power." Lord Lyttlcton's Henry II. 

"John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his 
safety." Goldsmith. 

" Lest th is means should fail.'' — u By means of ship-money, tin 1 late 
fee. " The only means of securing a durable pi Nxune. 

"By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland,' 1 fee, 

Bla Jcstone, 

tt By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their mast 

Dr. R 

"7)i/ this means they bear witness to each other." 

" By this means tin- wrath of man was mad.- to turn against itself." /' 

" A magazine, which has, by this means, contained, fee — * Birds, in general, 
procure their food by means of their 6eafc." 1). . PaUit 

u 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. 

objection and due consideration. Every connexion and ap- 
plication of words and phrases, thus supported, must there- 
fore be proper, and entitled to respect, if not exceptionable 
in a moral point of view. 

" Si volet usus 

" Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." HOR. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less de- 
viating; from the general analogy of the language, than those 
before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly proper and 
justifiable. Of this kind are the following. u None of them 
'are varied to express the gender ;" and yet none originally 
signified no one. " He himself shall do the work :" here, 
what was at first appropriated to the objective, is now prop- 
erly used as the nominative case. " You have behaved your- 
selves well :" in this example, the word you is put in the 
nominative case plural, with strict propriety : though former- 
ly it was confined to the objective case, and ye exclusively 
used for the nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus 
established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to 
remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision of 
proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes of ex- 
pression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagaci- 
ty ; and, in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently 
clear and decided ; but he cannot reasonably hope either to 
succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner, in discovering 
and respecting the true standard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within 
the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and re- 
monstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy, and proprie- 
ty ; and his reasonings may refine and improve the language : 
but when authority speaks out and decides the point, it were 
perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and 
debate. Anomalies then, under the limitation mentioned, 
become the law, as clearly as the plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, 
the use of the wora mean in the old form has a very uncouth 
appearance : " By the mean of adversity we are often in- 
structed." " He preserved his health by mean of exercise." 
" Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." They 
should be, " By means of adversity," $'C. " By means of ex- 
ercise," $'c. " Frugality is one means ;" fyc. 

Good writers do" indeed make use of the substantive mean 
in the singular number, and in that number only, to signify 
mediocrity, middle rate, fyc. as, " This is a mean between 
the two extremes." But in the sense of instrumentality, it 

iQd 



Rule 8.) syntax. 119 

has been long disused by the best authors, and by almost 
every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they 
refer to what is singular ; these means and those means, when 
they respect plurals : as, " He lived temperately, and by this 
means preserved his health ;" "The scholars were attentive, 
industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by these means 
acquired knowledge." 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young student 
may be led to reflect on a point so important, as that of as- 
certaining the standard of propriety in the use of language. 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, 
/ and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of 
distinction, that is used in reference to the former, and this, 
in reference to the latter: as, " Self-love, which is the spring 
of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that, man 
V would be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no 
end." 

8. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, 
agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular 
•number only : as, " The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the 
Ling of Judah, sat each on his throne ;" " Every tree is known 
by its fruit :" unless the plural noun convey a collective idea : 

as. "Every six months ;" "Every hundred years." The 

following phrases are exceptionable. " Let each esteem oth- 
ers better than themselves :" It ought to be "himself." 
" The language should be both perspicuous and correct : in 
proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the 
language is imperfect ;" it should be, "is wanting." "Every 
one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of 
attachment :" " bears a regular date, and contains.' 1 "Every 
town and village were burned ; every grove and every tree 
were cut down :" " was burned, and was cut down." See the 
K^y, p. 16 ; and the Octavo Grammar, Second cdiiion,vol- 
unit 2, pag( 

'Either is often us'-'d improperly, instead of each : as, " The 
king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either 
of them on his throne;" " Nadab and Abilm, the sons of 
Aaron, took either of them his censer.'' Each, signifies ban 
of them taken distinctly or separately; either properly sig- 
nifies only the one or the other of them taken disjunctively* 

It) the course of this work, some examples will' appear of 
erroneous translations from the Holy Seriptures, with res- 
pect to grammatical construction : out it may be proper to 
remark, that notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the 
Bible, for the size of it is the most accurate grammatical 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. 

composition that we have in the English language. The au- 
thority of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in 
support of this assertion ; but it may be sufficient to mention 
only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, " The present translation 
of the Bible, is the best standard of the English language." 

II. ADJECTIVES. 

4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad- 
verbs : as, " indifferent honest ; excellent well ; miserable 
poor ;" instead of " Indifferently honest ; excellently well ; 
miserably poor." " He behaved himself conformable to that 
great example ;" "conformably." "Endeavour to live here- 
after suitable to a person in thy station ;" " suitably." " I can 
never think so very mean of him ;" '' meanly.' 1 '' " He de- 
scribes this river agreeable to the common reading :" M agree- 
ably." " Agreeable to my promise I now write :" "agreeably." 
" 'Thy exceeding ^reat reward :'{ When united to an adjective, 
or adverb not ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added to 
it : as, " exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great;" " exceed- 
ingly well, exceedingly more active:" but when it is joined 
to an adverb or adjective, haying that termination, the ly is 
omitted : as, " Some men think exceeding clearly, and rea- 
son exceeding forciblv :" " She appeared, on this occasion, 
exceeding lovely." " £[e acted in this business bolder than was 
expected :" " They behaved the noblest, because they were 
disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly ; most 
nobly"— The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied : 
as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent 
his whole patrimony in a few years :" it should be, " so extrav- 
agant a young man." " I never before saw such large trees :" 
" saw trees so large." When w r e refer to the species or na- 
ture of a thing, the word such is properly applied: as, " Such 
a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, we 
use the word so : as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives : as, 
" The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm," but suitably 
to his offence;" "suitable" " They were seen wandering 
about solitarily and distressed ;" "solitary." "He lived in 
a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;" 
" agreeable." " The study of syntax should be previously to 
that of punctuation ;" "previous."* 

5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoid- 
ed : such as, " A worser conduct ;" " On lesser hopes ;" " A 
more serener temper ;" " The most straitest sect ;" " A more 

* For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to be used, 
se? EngKsh Exercises Sixteenth, or any subsequent, edition, page 140. 

I2d 



Rule 8.) syntax. 121 

superior work." They should be, " worse conduct ;" " less 
hopes ;" " a more serene temper ;" " the straitest sect •" " a 
superior work." 

6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signifi- 
cation, do not properly admit of the superlative or compar- 
ative form superadded : such as, " Chief, extreme, perfect 
right, universal, supreme," ^-c. ; which are sometimes im- 
properly written, " Chiefest, extremist, perfectest, rightest 
most universal, most supreme," 8>t... • The following expres- 
sions are therefore improper. "He sometimes claims ad- 
mission to the chiefest offices." " The quarrel became so uni- 
versal and national ;" "A method of attaining the rightest 
and greatest happiness." . The phrases, so perfect, so right, 
so extreme, so universal, tyc. are incorrect ; because they im- 
ply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, ^'c. than an- 
other, which is not possible. 

7, Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the 
degrees of comparison are applied and construed. The fol- 
lowing are examples of wrong construction in this respect : 
" This noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer cor- 
ruptions." The \vo\'t\f<.w<r is here construed precisely as if 
it were the superlative. It should be, "This noble nation 
hath admitted fewer corruptions than any other.? We com- 
monly say, "This is the weaker of the two;" or, "The 
weakest of the two :!' but the former is the regular mode of 
expression, because there are only two things compared. 
^ The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the 
soul of any other." " He celebrates the church of England 
as the most perfect of all others." Both these modes of ex- 
pression are faulty : we should not say, " The best of any 
man," or, "The best of any other man,'' for "the best of 
men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the 
comparative in the room of the superlative. " The vice, $*c. 
is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." " He 
celebrates, S,-e. as more perfect than any other." It is also 
possible to retain the superlative, and render the expression 
grammatical. " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deep- 
est into the soul." " He celebrates, $-c. as the most perfect 
of all churches." These sentences contain other errors, " 
against which it is proper to caution the learner* The words 
oeeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have 
been more deeply,^ most deeply. The phrases mor> perj\ d, and 
most perfect, are improper : because perfection admits of no 
decrees of comparison. We may say nearer or lu.arest to 

re or less imperfect. 

es, adjectives should not be separated from 
isu 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. 

their substantives, even by words which modify their mean- 
ing, and make but one sense with them : as, "A large enough 
number surely." It should be, " A number large enough." 
"The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one, 
not very distant from them." i 



The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : as 
" A generous man ;" " How amiable a woman 1" The in - 
stances in which it comes after the substantive, are the fol 
lowing. ' 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and 
when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as, " A. 
man generous to his enemies ;" "Feed me with food con- 
venient for me ;" " A tree three feet thick." " A body of troop3 
fifty thousand strong ;" " The torrent tULibling through rocks 
abrupt" 

2d, When the adjective is emphatical : as, " Alexander the 
Great;" "Lewis the Bold ;" "Goodness infinite f "Wis- 
dom unsearchable.'" 

3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : 
as, "A man just, wise, and charitable ;" " A woman modest, 
sensible, and virtuous." 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, 
" A boy regularly studious ;" " A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th, When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes 
between a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may 
frequently either precede or follow it : as, " The'man is hap- 
py ; or, happy is the man who makes virtue his choice:" 
"The intervieAV was delightful;" or, " delightful was the in- 
terview." 

Gth, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a 
substantive placed after an active verb : as, " Vanity often 
renders its possessor despicable." In an exclamatory sen- 
tence, the adjective generally precedes the substantive ; as, 
" How despicable does vanity often render its possessor !" 

There is sometimes great beaut)*, as well as force, in pla- 
cing the adjective before the verb, and the substantive imme- 
diately after it : as, " Great is the Lord ! just and true arc 
thy Avays, thou King of saints !" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a num- 
ber of 'particulars comprehended under it. " Ambition, in- 
terest, honour, all concurred. 1 ' Sometimes a substantive, 
which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is 
used in conjunction with this adjective : as, " Royalists, re- 



Rule 9.) syntax. 123 

publicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, allparties, 
concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in theplural number, will sometimes 
properly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, 
your intention, their resignation." This association applies 
rather to things of an intellectual nature, than to those which 
are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one com- 
pounded word, whence they often take, another adjective, 
and sometimes a third, and so on : as, " An old man ; a good 
old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, 
in many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where 
the noun has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, 
though not expressed : as, " I often survey the green fields, 
as I am very fond of green?' "The wise, the virtuous, the 
honoured, famed, and great," that is, " persons ;" " The 
twelve," that is, " apostles ;" " Have compassion pn the poor; 
be feet to the lame, and eyes to the blind" 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, the 
word so used is sometimes unconnected with the substantive 
to which it relates ; sometimes connected with it by a hj r phen ; 
and sometimes joined to it, so as to make the two words co- 
alesce. The total separation is proper, when either of the 
two words is long, or when thev cannot be fluently pronoun- 
ced as one word : as, an adjective pronoun, a silver watch, a 
stone cistern : the hyphen is used, w r hen both the words are 
short, and are readily pronounced as a single word : as, coal- 
mine, corn-mill, fruit-tree : the words coalesce, when they 
are readily pronounced together ; have a long established as- 
sociation : and are in frequent use : as, honeycomb, ginger- 
bread, inkhorn, Yorkshire. 

Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has 
another adjective joined to it : as, " The chief good ;" " The 
vast immense of space." 

When an adjective has a preposition before it, the substan- 
tive being understood, it takes the nature of an adverb, and 
is considered as an adverb: as, "In general, in particular, in 
haste," fyc. ; that is, " Generally, particularly, hastily." 

Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough : but it 
is uow obsolete. 

RULE IX. 

The article a or an agrees willi nouns in the singular 
number only, individually or collectively : as, " A chris- 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 9« 

tian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." The definite arti- 
cle the may agree with nouns in the singular and plural 
number : as, " The garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted : when used, 
they should be justly applied, according to their distinct 
nature : as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green ; a lion 
is bold." 

It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit 
the tiling spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing 
of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which : the determines 
which it is, or of many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the dif- 
ferent uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive 
without any article. " Man was made for society, and ought 
to extend his good will to all men : but aman will naturally 
entertain a more particular kindness for the men, Avith whom 
he has the most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still 
closer union with the man whose temper and disposition suit 
best with his own." 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of 
some use to exhibit a few instances : " And 1 persecuted this 
way unto the death." The apostle does not mean any par- 
ticular sort of death, but death in general : the definite article 
therefore is improperly used : it ought to be " unto death," 
without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you 
into all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, " into all 
truth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;" very different fi\>m 
the meaning of the evangelist, and from the original, " into 
all Me truth;" that is, "into all evangelical truth, all truth 
necessary for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it. ought to be 
" the wheel," used as an instrument for the particular pur- 
pose of torturing criminals. " The Almighty Lath given rea- 
son to a man to be a light unto him :" it should rather be, "to 
man" in general. " This day is salvation come to this house, 
forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, 
"a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance 
of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the 
English language in this respect; which, by means of its two 
articles, does most precisely determine the extent of signifi- 
cation of common names. 

1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by 
the use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved 



Rule 9.) syntax. 125 

with a little reverence ;" my meaning is positive. If 1 say, 
" He behaved with little reverence ;" my meaning is nega- 
tive. And these two are by no means the same, or to be 
used in the same cases. By the former, 1 rather praise a 
person ; by the latter, 1 dispraise him. For the sake of this 
distinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear 
the seeming impropriety of the article a before nouns of num- 
ber. When I say, " There were few men with him ;" I 
speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsid- 
erable : whereas, when I say ; " There were a few men with 
him ;" I evidently intend to make the most of them . 

2. In genera], it may be sufficient to prefix the article to 
the former of two words in the same construction ; though 
the French never fail to repeat it in this case;*" 

" There were many hours, both of the night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." 
It might have been " of the night and of the day." And, for 
the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series 
of epithets. " He hoped that this title would secure him an 
ample and an independent authority." 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we fre- 
quently omit the articles, which might be inserted with pro- 
priety in writing, especially in a grave style. " At worst, 
time might be gained by this expedient." " At the worst," 
would have been better in this place. " Give me here John 
Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in 
saying, " John the Baptist's head :" or, " The head of John 
the Baptist." 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguish- 
ing a person by an epithet. " In the history of Henry the 
fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him 
the great man." " 1 own 1 am often surprised that he should 
have treated so coldly, a man so much me gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the 
French; for the pronoun possessive : as, " He looks him full 
in the face ;" that is, "in his face." "In his presence they 
were to strike the forehead on the ground ;" that is, " then 
foreheads' 1 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat 
the same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause 
depending upon it, is put after the substantive. " Of all the 
considerable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth 
is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries." " With such a specious title as that of 

L2 174 



O ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 10. 

jlood, which with the multitude is always a claim, the strong- 
est, and the most easily comprehended." " They are not the 
men in the nation the most difficult to be replaced." 

RULE X. 

One substantive governs another, signifying a different 
thing, in the possessive or genitive case : as, " My father's 
house ;" " Man's happiness ;" " Virtue's reward." 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as 
the first, there is no variation of case : as, " George, king of 
Great Britain, elector of Hanover,? fyc. ; " Pompey contend- 
ed with Ceesar, the greatest general of his time ;" " Religion, 
the support of adversity, adorns prosperity."! INouns thus 
circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The 
interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the 
construction : as, " Pompey, contended with Ca3sar,i#/<o was 
the greatest general of his time." Here the word general is 
in the nominative case, governed by note 4, under rule xi. 

The prepositon of joined to a substantive, is not always 
equivalent to the possessive case. It is only so, when the 
expression can be converted into the regular form of the pos- 
sessive case. We can say, "The reward of virtue," and 
" Virtue's reward :" but though it is proper to say, " A crown 
of gold," we cannot convert the expression into* the posses- 
sive case, and say, " Gold's crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the pos- 
sessive case : as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Good- 
ness brings its reward ;" "That desk is mine.' 1 '' 

The genitive its is often improperly used for His or it is as, 
" Its my book :" instead of" It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which 
it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but 
as the genitive case of the personal pronoun : as, " This com- 
position is his." " Whose book is that ?" " His." If we 
used the noun itself, we should say, "This composition is 
John's." " Whose book is that ?" " Eliza's." The position 
will he still more evident, when we consider that both the 
pronouns in the following sentences must have a similar con- 
struction : " Is \ther or his honour that is tarnished ?" "It is 
not hers, but his." 

Sometimes ? suhstantive in the genitive or possessive case 
stands alone, le latter one by which it is governed being un- 
derstood : as, " I called at the bookseller's," that is, "at th3 
bookseller's shop." 

1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case, tfc "j 

184 



Rule 10.) SYNTAX. 127 

apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood to 
the rest : as, " John and Eliza's books :" " This was my fa- 
ther, mother, and uncle's advice." But when any word's in- 
tervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign 
of the possessive should be annexed to each : as, " They are 
John's as well as Eliza's books ;" " 1 had the physician's, the 
surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance." 

2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the 
apostrophe retained, in the same manner as" in substantives of 
the plural number ending ins: as, "The wrath ofPeleus' 
son." This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the fol- 
lowing erroneous examples will demonstrate : "Moses" min- 
ister ;" " Phinehas' wife ;" " Festus came into Felix' room." 
" These answers were made to the witness' questions." But 
in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, or 
increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes 
place even in prose : as, " For righteousness' sake ;" " For 
conscience' sake." 

S. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awk • 
ward between a genitive case, and the word which usually 
follows it : as, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she cal- 
led him, excellent understanding." It ought to be, " the ex- 
cellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a nann : 
and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is de - 
scriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion somi! 
doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case shoulo 
be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both 
Thus, some would say ; " I left the parcel at Smith's th 
bookseller;" others, " at Smith the bookseller's :" and per 
haps others, "at Smith's the bookseller's." The first of these 
forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the ad- 
dition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be 
less dubious : as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller 
and stationer." But as this subject requires a little further 
explanation to make it intelligible to the learners, we shall add 
a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and depend- 
ent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessari- 
ly requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase: 
as, " Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king of Great Brit- 
ain's," " That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The 
bishop of Landaff's excellent book:" "The lord mayor ol 
London's authority;" " The captain of the guard's bo 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick suc- 
cession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to givu 

19d 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 10. 

the sign of the genitive a similar situation; especially if the 
noun which governs the genitive be expressed : as, " The 
emperor Leopold's ;" "Dionysius the tyrant's ;" " For Da- 
vid my servant's sake ,•" " Give me John the BapiisVs head ;" 
"Paul the apostle's advice." [But when a pause is proper, 
and the governing noun not expressed ; and when the latter 
part of the sentence is extended ; it appears to be requisite 
that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and un- 
derstood to the other ; as,\" I reside at lord Stormont's, my 
old patron and benefactor^ " Whose glory did he emulate ? 
He emulated Csesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In 
the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place 
the sign, either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end 
of the latter one alone : " These psalms are David's, the king, 
priest, and prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We staid a 
month at lord Ly ttleton's, the ornament of his country, and 
the friend of every virtue." ^The sign of the genitive case 
may very properly be understood at the end of these mem- 
bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being; a com- 
mon construction in our language ; as the learner will see by 
one or two examples : " They Avished to submit, but he did 
not ;" that is, "he did not wiskto submit ;** " He said it was 
their concern, but not his ;" that is, " not his concern." 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
clause only, Ave shall perceive that a resting place is Avanted, 
and that the connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, 
to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as, " Whose glory did 
he emulate ?" " He emulated Csesar, the greatest general of 
antiquity s ,*" " These psalms are David, the king, priest, and 
prophet of the JeAAish people's." It is much better to say, 
" This is Paul's advice, the christian hero, and great apostle 
of the gentiles," than, " This is Paul the christian hero, and 
great apostle of the gentiles'' advice." On the other hand, the 
application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in 
apposition, Avouldbe generally harsh and displeasing, and 
perhaps in some cases incorrect : as, " The emperor's Leo- 
pold's ;" " King's George's ;" " Charles' the second's ;" "The 
parcel Avas left at Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's." 
The rules Avhich Ave have endeavoured to elucidate, Avill pre- 
vent the inconvenience of both these modes of expression ; 
and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, and consistent 
with the idiom of the language. 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so 
that Ave daily make more use of the particle of to express the 
same relation. . There is something aAvkAvard in the follow- 
ing sentences, in which this method has not been taken. 

20d 



Rule 10.) syntax. 129 

"The general, in the army's name, published a declara- 
tion.""" " The common's vote." " The lords' house." " Un- 
less he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were 
certainly better to say, " In the name of the army)"' " The 
vote of the commons ;" "The house of lords ;" " The con- 
dition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two 
English genitives with the same substantive : as, "Whom he 
acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The 
pleasure of the pope and the king," would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on 
one another, and connected by the preposition of applied to 
each of them : as, " The severity of the distress of the son of 
the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression 
is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, "The 
severe distress of the king's son, touched the nation." We 
have a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, 
in the following sentence : " Of some of the books o/each 
of these classes of literature, a catalogue will be given at the 
end of the work." 

6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and 
the preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac New- 
ton's." Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sentence 
into another form, this method is absolutely necessary, in 
order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of proper- 
ty, strictly so called, Avhich is the most important of the re- 
lations expressed by the genitive case : for the expressions, 
" This picture of my friend," and " This picture of my 
friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is 
that of property in the strictest sense. The idea would, 
doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, " This 
picture belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, 
is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a 
grave style, it is generally omitted. Except to prevent am- 
biguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases which suppose 
the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In 
the expressions, "A subject of the emperor's;*' "A senti- 
ment of my brother's ;" 'more than one subject, and one sen- 
timent, are supposed to belong to the possessor. But when 
this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily supposed, 
the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not 
be used : as, "This house of the governor is very commodi- 
ous ;" " The crown of the king was stolen ;" "That privilege 
of the scholar was never abused." (See page 40.J But after 
all that Can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, 
some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the 

21d 



330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule I L. 

use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form 
of expression. 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a 
participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to 
express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it de- 
pends may be put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of say- 
ing, " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant 
so hastily ?" that is, "What is the reason of this person in 
dismissing his servant so hastily ?" we may say, and perhaps 
ought to say, " What is the reason of this person's dismissing 
of his servant so hastily ?" Just as we say, " What is the rea- 
son of this person's hasty dismission of his servant ?" So also, 
we say, " I remember it being reckoned a great exploit ;" or 
more properly, " I remember its being reckoned," ^c. The 
following sentence is correct and proper : " Much will depend 
on the pupils composing, but more on his reading frequently." 
It would not be accurate to say, " Much will depend on the 
pupil composing" ^*c. We also properly say ; " This will be 
the effect of the pupils composing frequently ;" instead of, 
" Of the pupil composing frequently." 

RULE XL 

Active verbs govern the objective case : as, "Truth en- 
nobles her ;" " She comforts me ;" " They support ws;" 
t Virtue rewards herfolloivers" 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usu- 
ally goes before the verb ; and the objective case,' denoting 
the object, follows the verb active ; and it is the order that 
determines the case in ?wuns ; as, " Alexander conquered 
the Persians." But the pronoun having a proper form for 
each of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective 
case, placed before the verb ; and, when it is in the nomina- 
tive case, follows the object and verb ; as, " Whom ye igno- 
rantly w T orship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its 

firoper case and government to be neglected : as in the fol- 
OWing instances: "Who should 1 esteem more than the 
wise and good ?" " By the character of those who you 
choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." 
" Those are the persons who bethought true to his interests." 
" Who should I see the other day but my old friend." " Who- 
soever the court favours." In all these places it ought to be 
whom, the relative being governed in the objective case by 
the verbs " esteem, choose, thought," fyc. " He who under 
all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, 
choosy for thy friend ;" It should be "him who," S,-c. 



Rule 11.) SYNTAX. 131 

Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- 
nouns. "He sleeps; they muse,'" %-c. are not transitive. 
They are, therefore, not followed by an objective case, spe- 
cifying the object of an action. But when this case, or an 
object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may car- 
ry' the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected 
by a preposition or some other word understood : as, "He 
resided many years [that is, for or during many years] in 
that street ;" " He rode several miles [that is, for or through 
the space of several miles] on that day ;" " He lay an hour 
[that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, 
" To dream a dream," " To live a virtuous life," " To run a 
race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the 
verbs certainty assume a transitive form, and may not, in 
these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter verbs as if 
they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, 
agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal verbs ; 
but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the English 
tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The 
following are some instances of this practice. " Repenting 
him of his design." " The king soon found reason to repent 
him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." " The pop- 
ular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." 
" The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." 
" Go fee thee away into the land of Judah." " 1 think it by 
no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," ^*c. " They 
have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred 
with the profane chronology." 

£. Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neu- 
ter ; as, " I must premise with three circumstances." "Those 
that think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 

3. The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but, having 
in some degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many 
instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter sig- 
nification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some sort of motion, 
or change of place or condition : as, " I am come ; I was 
gone ; 1 am grown ; I was fallen." The following examples, 
however, appear to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs 
a passive form, instead of an active one. "The rule of our 
holy religion, from which we are infinitely sivcrved" "The 
whole obligation of that law and covenant was also ceased:' 
" Whose number wasnow amounted to three hundred." "This 
mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a conspir- 
acy against his master.'' " At the end of a campaign, when 

23d 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 12 

half the men are deserted or killed." It should be, " have 
swerved, had ceased," S>'c. 

4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same 
case after it, as that which next precedes it : " /am he whom 
they invited ;" " It may be (or might have been) he, but, it 
can.iot be (or could not have been) /;" " It is impossible to be 
they ,•" " It seems to have been he, who conducted himself so 
wisely ;" " It appeared to be she that transacted the business;" 
*i I understood it to be him ;" " I believe it to have been 
them;" " We at first took it to be her ; but were afterwards 
convinced that it was not she." " He is not the person who it 
seemed he was." " He is really the person xuho he appeared- 
to be." " She is not now the Avoman whom they represented 
her to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be ?" By 
these examples, it appears that this substantive verb has no 
government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as a conduct- 
or to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in the construc- 
tion of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must 
always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligi- 
ble to the learner, by observing, tnat the words in the cases 
preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to be in 
apposition to each other. Thus, in the sentence, U I under- 
stood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition ; 
that is, " they* refer to the same thing, and are in the same 
case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, 
and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : " It might have 
been him, but there is no proof of it;" " Thougli I was 
blamed, it could not have been me ;" " I saw one whom 1 
took to be she :" " She is the person who 1 understood it to have 
been ;" " Who do you think me. to be ?" " Whom do men say 

that 1 am ?" " And whom think ye that I am ?" See the 

Octavo Grammar. 

Passive verbs which signify naming, tyc. have the same 
rase before and after them: as, " He was called Caesar ; 
She was named Penelope ; Homer is styled the prince of 
poets ; James was created a duke ; The general was saluted 
emperor :- The professor was appointed tutor to the prince." 

^ 5. The auxiliary lei governs the objective case : as, " Let 
1dm beware ;" u £et us judge candidly ;" " Let them not pre- 
sume ;" "Let George study his lesson." 

RULE XII. 

One verb governs another that follows it, or depends 
upon it, in the infinitive mood : as, " Cease to do evil 5 



Rule 12.) syntax. 133 

learn to do well ;" " We should be prepared to render an 
account of our actions." 

The preposition to, though generally used before the lat- 
ter verb, is sometimes properly omitted : as, " I heard him 
say it ;" instead of " to say it." 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following 
them in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, dare, 
need, make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as an aux- 
iliary ; and perhaps a few others : as, " 1 bade him do it ;" 
w Ye dare not do it ;" "I saw him do it •" " I heard him say 
it f " Thou lettest him go." 

1: In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the 
infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic characters, 
is superfluous and improper. "I have observed some satir- 
ists to use," fyc. " To see so many to make so little con- 
science of so great a sin." "It cannot but be a delightful 
spectacle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged 
by powerful temptations on every side, to acquit himself 
gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most violent 
assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, 
that is courted by pleasures and honours, by the devil, and all 
the bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and 
to cleave steadfastly unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following 
places : " Lam not like other men, to envy the talents I can- 
not reach." " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, 
them to be genuine ;" " That all our doings may be ordered 
by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, sub- 
stantives, and participles : as, " He is eager to learn ;" " She 
is worthy to be loved ;" " They have a desire to improve ;" 
" Endeavouring to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substan- 
tive, expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as 
the participle lias the nature of an adjective. Thus the infin- 
itive mood does the office of a substantive in different cases : 
in the nominative : as, " To play is pleasant :" in the objec- 
tive : as, " Boys love to pUn/ ;" " h or to will is present with 
me. ; but to perform that which is good, 1 find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or Used inde- 
pendently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of 
the conjunction that with the potential mood : as, "To con- 
fess the truth, I was in fault:" "To begin with the first f 

M 25d 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 13. 

" To proceed ;" "To conclude;" that is, "That I may con- 
fess," fyc. 

RULE XIII. / 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should 
be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord hath given, 
and the Lord hath taken away ;" we should say, " The 
Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away. 7 ' Instead of, 
" I remember the family more than twenty years ;" it 
should be, u I have remembered the family more than 
twenty years. 7 ' 

It is not easy to give particular rules for the management 
of the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one anoth- 
er, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best 
rule that can be given, is this very general one : "To observe 
what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be 
of use to give a few examples of irregular construction. " The 
last week I intended to have *w?7teH," is a very common 
phrase ; the infinitive being in the past time, as well as the 
verb whjeh it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; for how 
long soever it now is since I thought of Avriting, " to write" 
was then present to me, and must stifl be considered as pres- 
ent, when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it. It 
ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intended to write" 
The following sentences are also erroneous: "I cannot ex- 
cuse the remissness of those whose business it should have 
been, as it certanly was their interest, to have interpose d their 
good offices.'' " There were two circumstances which made 
it necessary for them to have lost no time." " History pain- 
ters would have found it difficult to have invented such a spe- 
cies of beings." They ought to be, " to interpose, to lose, to 
invent." " On the morrow, because he should have known 
the certainty, wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he 
loosed him." It ought to be, "because he icould know" or 
rather, " being witting to know." 

" The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive 
my sight." " If by any means I might attain unto the resur- 
rection of the dead ;" " may," in both places, w r ould have 
been better. " From his biblical knoAvledge, he appears to 
study the Scriptures with great attention ;" " to have studied," 1 
ty-c. " I feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at 
the city ;" " should lose it." " I had rather walk ;" It should 
be, " I would rather walk." " It would have afforded me no 
satisfaction, if I could perform it :" it should be, " if 1 CGtdd 

26d 



Rule 13.) syntax. 135 

have performed it ;" or, "It would afford me no satisfaction, 
if I ccxdd perform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must re- 
collect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imper- 
fect tenses often carry with them a future sense ; and that 
the auxiliaries should and would, in the imperfect times, are 
used to express the present and future as well as the past : 
for which see page 60. 

1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infini- 
tive mood in the following form ; " to write," " to be wri- 
ting," and " to be written," always denote something conttm- 
porary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent to 
it : but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows ; 
" To have been writing," " to have written," and " to have 
been written," they always denote something antecedent to 
the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought to 
be of importance ; for if duly attended to, it will, in most 
cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of 
these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically ex- 
pressed : " I found him better than 1 expected to find him.'' 
" Expected to have found him," is irreconcilable alike to 
grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, 
desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed 
by the present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Everv 
person would perceive an error in this expression ; " It \s 
long since I commanded him to have done it :" Yet " expect- 
ed to have found" is no better. It is as clear that the finding 
must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience 
must be posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety 

Kut in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood ; " It would 
ave afforded me great pleasure, as often as 1 reflected upon 
it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence." As the 
message, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and 
not contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message 
must denote that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the 
infinitive. If the message and the pleasure had been referred 
to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would, with equal 
propriety, have beeil put in the present of the infinitive : a-. 
" It would have affbrcu d me great pleasure, to be the m< ss 
ger of such intelligence." In the former instance, the plnase 
in question is equivalent to these words ; " If I had been the 
messenger ;" in the latter instance, to this expression : " Be- 
mg- the messenger." — For a further discussion of this subject, 

27d 



!;: 



136 ENGLTSH GRAMMAR. (Rule 13, 

see the Eleventh edition of the Key to the Exercises, p. fiO, 
and the Octavo Grammar, rule xiii. 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express 
t>>e past time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the 
infinitive must always be used : as, " He ought to have d' ne 
it." When we use this verb, this is the only possible waj to 
distinguish the past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we 
can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians ; a- 
mongst whom are Lowth and Campbell. But there are some 
writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, that the gov- 
erned verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when 
the verb which governs it, is in the past time. Though this 
cannot be admitted, in the instances which are controverted 
under this rule, or in any instances of a similar nature, yet there 
can be no doubt that, in many cases, in which the thing re- 
ferred to preceded the governing verb, it would be proper 
and allowable. We may say ; " From a conversation I once 
had with him, he appeared to have studied Homer with great 
care and judgment." It would be proper also to say, " From 
his conversation, he appears to have studied Homer with great 
care and judgment;" "That unhappy man is supposed to 
have died oy violence." These examples are not only con- 
sistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is 
the tense of the governing verb only, that marks what is cal- 
led the absolute time ; the tense of the verb governed, marks 
solely its relative time with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinilive 
mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, 
and future, is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the 
subject. That these verbs associate with verbs in all the 
tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their 
own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether 
present, past, or future, the governed verb in the infinilive 
always respects that period, and its time is calculated from it. 
Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the 
same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the 
thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, 
or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb. 
It is therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are assigned 
to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from 
which they are computed, is of no consequence ; since pies- 
ent, past, and future, are completely applicable to them. 

W e shall conclude our observations under this rule, by re- 
marking, that though it is often proper to use the perfect of 
the infinitive after the governing verb, yet there are particu- 

33d 



Rule 14.) syntax. 137 

lar cases, in which it would be better to give the expression a 
different form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have 
written to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to 
him sooner," " He will one day wish to have written sooner;" 
it would be more perspicuous and forcible, as well as more 
agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say ; " I wish 
that I had written to him sooner," " 1 then wished that 1 had 
written to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had 
written sooner." Should the justness of these strictures be 
admitted, there would still be numerous occasions for the use 
of the past infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples. 
"It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure to 
have found him wise and virtuous.'' "To have deferred his 
repentance longer, would have disqualified him for repenting 
at all." " They will then see, that to have faithfully perform- 
ed their duty, would have been their greatest consolation."* 

RULE XIV. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have 
from which they are derived : as, " I am weary with 
hearing him ;" " She is instructing us ;" " The tutor is 
admonishing Charles." 

1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article; for 
the present participle, with the definite article the before it, 
becomes a substantive, and must have the preposition oj 'after 
it : as, "These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of 
which, you may avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to 
say, "by the observing which;" nor "by observing of 
which ;" but the phrase, without either article or preposition, 
would be right : as, " by observing which." The article a or 
on, has the same effect : as, " This was a betraying of the 
trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, 
and from as plain a principle ;;s any on which it is founded ; 
namely, that a worcWkpich has the article before it, and the 
possessive preposition o/*afler it, must be a noun : and, if a 
noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to 
have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination 
of this sort of words that is apt to deceive us, and make us 
treat them as if they were ol an amphibious species, partly 
nouns and partly verbs. 

The foil wing are a few examples of the violation of this 
rule. " lie was sent to prepare the way by preaching of re- 
pentance ;'' it ought to be, " by the preaching of repentance ;" 
or, " by preaching repentance. "' u By the continual mortify- 

* See Key to Eiidiah Excretes, Lltvaxth Edit. Rule xiii. The Note. 
H2 23<i 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 1 4. 

ing our corrupt affections,-" it should be, "by the continual 
mortifying of, 1 " or, " by continually mortifying our cor- 
rupt affections." "They laid out themselves towards J Ac 
advancing and promoting the good of it ;" " towards ad- 
vancing and promoting the good." " It is an overvaluing 
ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure 
of our capacities;" "it is overvaluing ourselves,'' or, "an 
overvaluing of ourselves." " Keeping of one day in seven," 
tyc. : it ought to be, " the keeping of one day ;" or, " keeping 
one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present partici- 
ple and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every 
instance, convey the same meaning as would he conveyed by 
the participle without the article and preposition. - " He ex- 
pressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philoso- 
pher," is capable of a different sense from, " He expressed Ihe 
pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher." When, there- 
fore, we wish, for the sake of harmony or variety, to substi- 
tute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should pre- 
viously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the sen- 
timents they convey. 

2. The same observations which have been made respe< t- 
ing the effect of the article and participle, appear to be appli- 
cable to the pronoun and participle, when they are similarly 
associated : as, " Much depends on their observingfof the rule, 
and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of 'if," 
/nstead of "their observing the rule, and their neglecting il." 
We shall perceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun 
for the pronoun : as, " Much depends upon Tyro's observing 
of the rule," ^*c. But, as this construction sounds rather harsh- 
ly, it would, in general, be better to express the se-ntiment in 
the following, or some other form : "Much depends on Ihe 
rule's being observed ; and error will l^the consequence of its 
being neglected :" or — "on observin§Mb§ rule ; and — of neg- 
lecting it." This remark may be aPPied to several other 
modes of expression to be found in this work ; which, though 
they are contended for as strictly correct, are not always the 
most eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound. See 
pages 39, 55, 127— ISO. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : 
" Informing of 'his sentences, he was very exact ;" " Fivm 
calling of names, he proceeded to blows." But this is incor- 
rect language ; for prepositions do not, like articles and pio- 
nouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a sub- 
stantive ; as we have shown above in the phrase, "Bv ob- 
serving which." And yet the participle with its adjun ts, 



Rule 15.) syntax. 139 

may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un- 
derstood : as, " By promising muck, and performing but little, 
we become despicable." " He studied to avoid expressing 
himself too severely" 

8. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that 
they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, " He 
begun," for " he began ;"' " he run," for "he ran ;" "He 
drunk," for " he drank ;" the participle being here used in- 
stead of the imperfect tense : and much more frequently the 
imperfect tense instead of the participle : as, " 1 had wrote," 
for " I had written :" " 1 was chose," for "I was chosen ;" 
" I have eat," for, " I have eaten." '* His words were inter- 
wove with sighs ;" " were interwoven." " He would have 
spoke;" "spoken" " He hath bore witness to his faithful 
servants ;" " borne." " By this means he over-run his guide ;" 
"over-ran" " The sun has rose ;" "risen." "His constitu- 
tion has been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong 
to be shook by such causes;" "shaken, 1 " in both places 
"They were verses wrote on glass;'' "written.'" ''Philoso- 
phers have often mistook the source of true happiness :" il 
ought to be " mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted 
by changing ed into t ; as, " In good behaviour, he is not 
surpast by any pupil of the school." " She was much dis- 
trest." They ought to be " surpassed," " distressed." 

RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, 
tense, &c. require an appropriate situation in the sentence, 
viz. for the most part, .before adjectives, after verbs active 
or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the 
verb : as, " He madi^f very sensible discourse ; he spGtce 
unaffectedly and forcibly, and was attentively heard by 
the whole assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may 
serve to illustrate the rule. " He must not expect to find 
study agreeable always ;" " always agreeable." "We always 
find "them ready when we want them;" "we find them 
always ready," ^*c. " Dissertations on the prophecies which 
have remarkably been fulfilled ;" " which have been remarka- 
bly.^ " Instead of looking contemptuously down on the 
crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thankfully to 
God, who hath made us better •" " instead of looking down 

314 



340 English grammar. (Rule 15. 

contemptuously, fyc. we should thankfully look up* 'fyc. "If 
thou art blessed naturally with a good memory, continually 
exercise it ;" " naturally blessed,'' tyc. " exercise it continu- 
ally." 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the 
verb, or at some distance after it ; sometimes between the 
two auxiliaries ; and sometimes after them both ; as in the 
following examples. " Vice always creeps by degrees, and 
instnsibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which 
we are at last completely bound." " He encouraged tfie Eng- 
lish Barons to carry their opposition farther" "They com- 
pelled him to declare that he would abjure the realm/or ever;" 
instead of, " to carry farther their opposition ;" and " to ab- 
jur i for ever the realm." " He has generally been reckoned 
an honest man." " The book may always be had at such a 
place ;" in preference to " has been generally ;" and " may 
be always." " These rules will be clearly understood, after 
they have been diligently studied," are preferable to, " These 
rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently 
been studied." 

f ;om the preceding remarks and examples, it appears tha* 
no exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of 
adverbs, on all occasions. The general rule may be of con- 
siderable use ; but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase, 
are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word 
that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes 
the verb and the nominative noun : as, " There is a person 
at the door;" "There are some thieves in the house;" which 
would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A person 
is at the door ;" " Some thieves are in the house." Some- 
times, it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to 
the sentence : as, " There was a man sent from God, whose 
name was John." When it is applied in its strict sense, it 
principally follows the verb and tnPfibminative case: as, 
" The man stands there." 

1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb : as, " I 
never was there;" "He never comes at a proper time." 
\\ hen an auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, either 
before or after this adverb : as, " He was never seen (or nev- 
er was seen) to laugh from that time." 

Never seems to be improperly used in the following pas- 
sages. "Ask me never so much dowry and gift." "If I 
make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so 
wisely." The word " ever " would be more suitable to the 
sense. 



Rule 16.) SYNTAX. 141 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place 
where, is often used instead of the pronoun relative and a 
preposition. " They framed a protestation, where they re- 
peated all their former claims ;" i. e. " in which they repeat- 
ed." " The king was still determined to run forwards, in 
the same course where he was already, by his precipitate 
career, too fatally advanced ;' 5 i. e. " in which he was. But 
it would be better to avoid this mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposi- 
tion ; for they signify, " from this place, from that place, 
from what place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to 
be improper to join a preposition with them, because it is su- 
perfluous : as, "This is the leviathan, from whence the wits 
of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient 
author prophesies from hence." But the origin of these 
words is little attended to, and the preposition from so often 
used in construction with them, that the omission of it, in 
many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, ivhere, are often improperly ap- 
plied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, 
thither, whither: as, "He came here hastily ;" " They rode 
there with speed." They should be, " He came hither ;" 
" Thev rode thither," fyc. 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for sub- 
stantives : " In 1637, he erected it into a community of regu- 
lars, since lohen, it has begun to increase in those countries as 
a religious order ;" i. e. "since which iifi\e,'r " A little while 
apd I shall not see you :" i. e. " a short time..'''' " It is worth 
their while ;" i. e. " it deserves their time and pains." But 
this use of the word rather suits familiar than grave style. 
The same may be said of the phrase, " To do a thing any- 
how ,*" i. e. " in any manner ;" or, " somehow ;" i. e. " in some 
manner." " Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are 
under the influence of prejudice." 

RULE XVI. 

Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are 
equivalent to an affirmative : as", " Nor did they not per- 
ceive him ;" that is, " they did perceive him.' 7 " His 
language, though inelegant, is not un grammatical ;" that 
is," it is grammatical. " 

It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirma- 
tive, than by two separate negatives, as in the former sen- 
tence : but when one of the negatives is joined to another 
word, as in the latter sentence, the. two negatives form a 
pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

33d 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule U . 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives 
instead of one; as in the following instances: "I never did 
repent of doing good, nor shall not now ;" " nor shall I now.'''' 
" Never no imitator grew up to his author :" " never did 
any," fyc. " I cannot by no means allow him what his argu- 
ment must prove ;'' " I cannot by any means," ^-c. or, " I 
can by no means" " Nor let no comforter approach me ;" 
"nor let any comforter," fyc. "Nor is danger ever appre- 
hended in such a government, no more than we commonly 
apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes:" it should 
be, " any more.'' 1 " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than 
Raphael, were not born in republics/' " Neither Ariosto, 
Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a re- 
])! tblic." 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case : as, " I have 
heard a good character of her ;" " From Mm that is needy 
turn not away ;" " A word to the wise is sufficient for 
them ;" " We may be good and happy without riches?- 

The following are examples of the nominative case being 
used instead of the objective. " Who servest thou under ?" 
" Who do you speak to ?" " We are still much at a loss who 
civil power belongs to :" " Who dost thou ask for?" " Asso- 
ciate not with those who none can speak well of." In all these 
places it ought to be " luhom." See Note 1. 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly 
before the pronouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me 
some paper ;" that is, " to me ; for me." " Wo is me ;" i. e. 
" to me." " He was banished England ;" i. e. i( from Eng- 
land." 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative 
wiiich it governs: as, "Whom wilt thou give it to?" instead 
of, " To ivhom wilt thou give it ?" " He is an author whom 1 
am much delighted with ;"' " The world is too polite to shock 
authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are 
the first that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our 
language is strongly inclined ; it prevails in common conver- 
sation, and suits very well with trie familiar style in writing: 
but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more 
graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better 
with the solemn and elevated style. 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, 
in order to connect different prepositions with the same 
noun : as, " To suppose the zodiac and planets to be effi- 
cient of and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether in 



Rule 170 SYNTAX. 143 

the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and 
should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, 
where fulness and exactness of expression must take place of 
every other consideration, it may be admitted. 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be ex- 
pressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with 
the same verb or adjective. Thus w r e say, " to converse with 
a person, upon a subject, in a house, 4*c-" We also say, 
" We are disappointed of a thing," when we cannot get it, 
"and disappointed in it," when we have it, and find it does 
not answer our expectations. But two different prepositions 
must be improper in the same construction, and in the same 
sentence : as, " The combat between thirty French against 
twenty English." 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two preposi- 
tions the preference is to be given, as both are used promiscu- 
ously, and custom has notdecided in favour of either of them. 
We say, "Expert at," and "expert in a thing." "Expert at 
rinding a remedy for his mistakes;" "Expert in deception." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are gen- 
erally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the 
nouns are derived : as, " A compliance with" " to comply 
with;" "A disposition to tyranny," " disposed to tyrannize.' 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition 
is of great importance, we shall select a considerable number 
of examples of impropriety, in the application of this part of 
speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition of— " Tie is resolved 
of going to the Persian court ;" " on going," &fc. "He was 
totally dependant of the Papal crown ;" " on the Papal," $*c. 
"To call of a person," and "to wait of him," "on a person," 
^•c. " He was eager of recommending it to his fellow citi- 
zens," " in recommending," S/c. Of is sometimes omitted, 
and sometimes inserted, after worthy : as, " It is worthy ob- 
servation," or, " of observation." But it would have been 
better omitted in the following sentences. "The emulation, 
who should serve their country best, no longer subsists among 
them, but of who should obtain the most lucrative com- 
mand." " The rain hath been falling of a. long time ;" " fall- 
ing a long time." "It is situation chiefly which decides of 
the fortune and characters of men :" "decides the fortune," 
or, "concerning the fortune." "He found the greatest dilli- 
culty of writing;" "m writing." "It might have given me a 
greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a thing implies 
actual enjoyment of it: but a taste for it, implies only a ca- 
pacity for enjoyment. "This had a much greater sliare of 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 17' 

inciting him, than any regard after his father's commands ;" 
"share in inciting," and "regard to his father's," $-c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. — "You^| 
have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons ;" 
" upon the most deserving," ^c. " He accused the ministers 
for betraying the Dutch :" "0/ having betrayed." "His ab- 
horrence to that superstitious figure ;" " of that," fyc. " A 
great change to the better ^ "for the better." "Your preju- . 
dice to my cause;" "against." "The English were very 
different people then to what they are at present ;" "from 
what," fy-c. " In compliance to the declaration ;" " with" fyc. 
"It is more than they thought for;" " thought of." " There 
is no need for it ;" " of it." Fur is superfluous in the phrase, 
" More than he knowsybr." " No discouragement tor the 
authors to proceed;'* "to the authors," $*c. "It was per- 
fectly in compliance to some persons;" "with." "The 
wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their great- 
ness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;" 
" diminution of" and " derogation from." 11 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon. — 
" Reconciling himself with the king." " Those things which 
have the greatest resemblance with each other, frequently 
differ the most." " That such rejection should be consonant 
with our common nature." " Conformable with," fyc f 
"The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In 
all the above instances, it should be, " to," instead of " with" 
" It is a use that perhaps I should not have thought on ;" 
" thought of" " A greater quantity may be taken from the 
heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it ;" " in 
it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could 
confide ;" "in whom." " He was made much on at Argos ;" 
"much of" "If policy can prevail upon force;" " over 
force." " 1 do likewise dissent with the examiner ;" "from" 
4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, ^c. — " They 
should be informed in some parts of his character ;" "about," 
or, " concei-hing." " Upon such occasions as fell into their 
cognizance ;" " under." " That variety of factions into which 
we are still engaged ;" " in which." " To restore myself into 
the favour ;" " to the favour." " Could he have profited 
from repeated experiences :" " by." From seems to be su- 
perfluous after/or&ecrr : as, " He could not forbear from ap- 
pointing the pope," fy-c. "A strict observance after times 
and fashions ;" " of times." " The character which we may 
now vain ) ourselves by drawing ;" " upon drawing." "Nei- 
ther of tl im shall make me swerve out of the path ;" "from 
the path "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and 

36«l 



Rule 18.) syntax. 145 

swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, " which strain out a gnat, 
or take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro- 
priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning 
of the phrase. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of 
things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the 
word every, which is in the singular number : as, " Which is 
found among every species of liberty ;'' " Tiie opinion seem* 
to gain ground among every body." 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, 
when they follow verbs and participles of motion: as, " i 
went to London ;" " 1 am going to town." But the preposi- 
tion at is generally used after the neuter verb to be: as, ** I 
have been at London ;" "I was at the place appointed ;" "1 
shall be at Paris." We likewise say : " He touched, arrived 
at any place." The preposition in is set before countries, 
cities, and large towns : as, " He lives in Fiance, in London, 
or in Birmingham*" But before villages, single houses, and 
cities which are in distant countries, at is used ; as, "He lives 
at Hackney ;" "He resides at Montpelier." 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun 
one another, whether the preposition of be placed between 
the two parts of it, or before them both. We may say, 
"They were jealous of one another," or, " They were jeal- 
ous one of another ;" but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as, except- 
ing, respecting, touching, concerning, according. " They were 
all in fault except or excepting him.'' 

RULE XVIII. I 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of 
verbs and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, " Candour is to 
be approved and practised ;" " If thou sincerely desire, 
and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be foundby 
thee, and prove a rich reward ;" " The master (aught hsr 
"and me to write;" " He and she were school fellows. v * 
A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may 
further display its utility. u If he prefer a virtuous lifts, an I 
is sincere in his professions, he will succeed ;" " if he prefers. 9 ' 
" To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; and 
wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" H and to 
want compassion." *' The Parliament addressed the king, 
and has been prorogued the same day ;" "and was prorogu- 
ed." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other ; " "and 

* This rule refers only to nouns ami pronouns, wbicb have the want ucaiii $ 
or relation, with regard to other parts of the sentence. 

K »« 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 10* 






he" "He entreated us, my comrade and 1, to live harmo- 
niously ;" "comrade and me." "My sister and her were on j 
good terms ;" " and she." " We often overlook the blessings ' 
which are in our possession, and are searching after those 
which are out of our reach:" it ought to be, "and starch 
after." 

1. Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect 
different moods and tenses of verbs: but in these instances 
the nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated, 
which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the con- 
struction to which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives 
temperately, and he should live temperately ;" " He may re- 
turn, but he will not continue ;" " She was proud, though she 
is now humble :" but it is obvious, that in such cases, the nomi- 
native ought to be repeated ; and that, by this means, the lat- 
ter members of these sentences are rendered not so strictly 
dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under 
the rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from 
the affirmative to the negative form, or from the negative to 
the affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed : 
as, ** He is rich, but he is not respectable." " He is not rich, 
but he is respectable." There appears to be, in general, 
equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming the 
subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a 
change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may 
therefore be improved. " Anger glances into the breast of 
a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;" " but 
rests only :" or, " but it will rest only." " Virtue is praised by 
many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really 
known ;" " and she would." " The world begins to recede, 
and will soon disappear ;" " and it will." See the Octavo 
Grammar, Rule xviii. 

RULE XIX. / 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub- 
junctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, that when 
something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunc- 
tive ought to be used : as, " If I were to write, he would 
not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, unless he re- 
pent." 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
require the indicative mo^d. " As virtue advances, so vice 
recedes .*" " He is healthy, because he is temperate." 

The conjunctions, if, though, *?i?'?s, except, whether, Sfc. 
generally require the subjunctit 2 • "d after them : as, " If 



Rule 19.) SYNTAX. 147 

thou be afflicted, repine not ;" " Though he slay me, yet will 
I trust in him ;" " He cannot be clean, unless he wash him- 
self ;" " No power, except it were given from above ;" " Wheth- 
er it were I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunc- 
tions, when the sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the 
indicative : as, " Though he is poor, he is contented." — See 
subjunctive mood^p. 54, and pages 151, 152. 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to 
illustrate the distinction between the subjunctive and the in- 
dicative moods. " Though he were divinely inspired, and 
spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with supreme author- 
ity ; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and 
could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he utter- 
ed, by miracles ; yet, in compliance with the way in which 
human nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought 
upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was divinely inspired, 
and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are 
here taken for granted, as not admitting the least doubt ; they 
would therefore have been better expressed in the indicative 
mood : " Though he ivas divinely inspired ; though he was 
endued with supernatural powers." The subjunctive is used 
in the like improper manner in the following example : 
" Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, by the 
things which he suffered." But, in a similar passage, the in- 
dicative, with great propriety, is employed to the same pur- 
pose ; " Though he was rich, yet for } r our sakes he became 
poor." 

1. Lest, and that, annexed to a command preceding, neces- 
sarily require the subjunctive mood: as, u Love not sleep, 
lest thou come to poverty ;" " Reprove not a scorner, lest he 
hate thee ;" "Take heed that thou speak, not to Jacob." 

If with hut following it, when futurity is denoted, require 3 
the subjunctive mood : as, " If he do but touch the hills, they 
shall smoke ; M " If he be but discreet, he will succeed." But 
the indicative ought to be used, on this occasion, when future 
time is not signified : as, " If, in this expression, he does but 
jest, no offence should be taken ;" " If she is but sincere: lam 
happy." The same distinction applies to the following forms 
of expression : u If he do submit, it will be from necessity ;" 
''Though he- docs submit, he is not convinced ;" u If tliou do 
not reward this service, he will be discouraged ;" "If thou 
dost heartily forgive him, endeavour to forget the oil' 

2. In the following instances, the conjunctien that, express- 
ed or understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with 
the subjunctive mond. " So much she dreaded his tyranny, 
ihatthe fate of her friend she dure not lament." "He reasoned 

2t 



14S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 1&. 

so artfully that his friends would listen, and think [that\ he 
were not wrong." 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative 
and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the 
s^ame circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in 
these instances., "//"there be but one body of legislators, it 
is no better than a tyranny : if there arc only two, there will 
want a casting voice." " If a man have a hundred sheep, 
and one of them is gone astray/' ^-c. 

4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any 
language, have arisen from the ellipsis of some words, which 
were originally inserted in the sentence, and made it regular; 
and it is probable, that this has generally been the case with 
respect to the conjunctive form of words, now in use ; which 
will appear from the following examples : " We shall over- 
take him though he run ;'■ that is, "though he should run ;" 
" Unless he act prudently, he will not accomplish his purpose ; ,r 
that is, " unless he shall act prudently." " If he succeed and 
obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;" that is, " If 
he should succeed and should obtain his end." These re- 
marks and examples are designed to show the original of 
man)' of our present conjunctive forms of expression ; and to 
enable the student to examine the propriety of using them, 
by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and 
ancient connexions. But it is necessary to be more particu- 
lar on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few observa- 
tions respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present 
tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification.. 
This is effected by varying the terminations of the second 
and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will be evi- 
dent from the following examples: "If thou prosper, thou 
shouldst be thankful ;" " Unless he study more closely, he 
will never be learned." Some writers however would ex- 
press these sentiments without those variations; "If thou 
prosperest" fyc. " Unless he stvdies" fyc. : and as there is 
great diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer 
the learners a few remarks, to assist them in distinguishing 
the right application of these different forms of expression. 
It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of termina- 
tion are necessary, when these two circumstances concur :. 
1st, When the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; 
and 2d, When the verb has a reference to future time. In 
the following sentences, both these circumstances will be 
found to unite ; " If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself;** 
"He lias a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, be must 

4c 



Rule 19.) SYNTAX. 149 

suffer;" "He will maintain his principles, though he lose his 
estate ;" " Whether he succeed or not, his intention is lauda- 
ble ;" "If he be not prosperous, he will not repine-," "If ,1 
man smite his servant, and he die," fyc. Exod. xxi. 20. In all 
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncer- 
tain, and refer to future time. But in the instances which 
follow, future time is not referred to ; and therefore a differ 
ent construction takes place ; " If thou livest virtuously, thou 
art happy;" "Unless he means what he says, he is doubly 
faithless ;" " If he allows the excellence of virtue, he does not 
regard her precepts ;" "Though he seems to be simple and 
artless, he has deceived us ;" " Whether virtue is better than 
rank or wealth, admits not of any dispute;" "if thou btliev- 
est with all thy heart, thou mayst," fyc. Jtcts viii. 37.— r- 
There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in 
which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted : as, 
" Though he excels her in,knowledge, she far exceeds him in 
virtue." "I have no doubt of his principles : butifhefee- 
lieves the truths of religion, he does not act according to 
them." 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are 
necessary, as tests of the propriety of altering the termina- 
tions, will be evident, by inspecting the following examples ; 
which show that there are instances in which neither of the 
circumstances alone implies the other. In the three exam- 

Eles following, contingency is denoted, but not futurity. " If 
e thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted." " If he it 
now disposed to it, I will perform the operation/' " He acts 
uprightly, unless he deceives me." In the following senten- 
ces, futurity is signified, but not contingency. " As soon as 
the sun sets, it will be cooler." " As the autumn advances, 
these birds will gradually emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that 
the rules above mentioned may be extended to assert, that in 
cases wherein contingency and futurity do not concur, it is 
not proper to turn the verb from its signification of present 
time, nor to vary its form or termination. The verb would 
then be in the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might 
attend it. — If these rules, which seen to form the true <iis- 
tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in 
this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we 
should have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and 
precise, and readily applicable to every ease that might 
occur. — It will, doub .'?ss, so; a-etimes happen, (hat on this oc- 
casion, as well as on naay jther occasions, a strict adhe- 
rence to granimaticaj litai *'ou!d render the language stiff 

$2 Si 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule I& 

and formal r but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to 
give the expression a different turn, than to violate grammar 
for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. See Rule 14. 
Note 2. 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses 
of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few ob- 
servations. Some writers express themselves in the perfect 
tense as follows: u If thou have determined, we must sub- 
mit:" " Unless he have consented, the writing will be void :" 
but we believe that few authors of critical sagacity write in- 
this manner. The proper form seems to be, " If thou ha i 
determined ; unless he has consented," £,'C. conformably to 
what we generally meet with in the Bible : " I have surnamed 
thee, though thou hast not known me." Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. 
" What is the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained," 
fyc. Job xxvii. 8. See also Jicts xxviii. 4. 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet 
with such expressions as these; "If thou had applied thyself 
diligently, thou wouldst have reaped the advantage ;" "Un- 
less thou shall speak the whole truth, we cannot determine ; ,? 
"If thou will undertake the business, there is- Httle doubt of 
success." This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not 
appear to be warranted by the general practice of correct 
writers. They should be hadst, shalt, and wilt : and we find 
them used in this form, in the sacred Scriptures. 

" If thou hadst known," ^-c. Ldike xix. 47. " If thou hadst 
been here," S>'c. John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst make 
me clean," Matt. viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam. ii. 27. Matt. xvii. 4. 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the 
subjunctive mood, u also very frequently varied in its ter- 
mination: as, "If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey 
him :" " Though thou did conform, thou hast gained nothing 
by it." This variation,, however, appears to be improper. 
Our present version of the Scriptures, which we again refer 
to, as a good grammatical authority in points of this nature, 
decides against it. "If thou knewest trie gift," 4*c John iv. 
10. "If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory ?" fyc. 
1 Cor. iv. 7. See also Dan: v. 22. But it is proper to remark, 
that the form of the verbfo be, when used subjunctively in the 
imperfect tense, is indeed very considerably and properly va- 
ried from that which it has in the imperfect of the indicative 
mood : as the learner will perceive by turning to the con- 
jugation of that verb. 

8. It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the 
auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the sub- 
junctive, do not change the termination of the second person 



Rule 19.) SYNTAX. 151 

singular. \\ e properly say, " If thou mayst or canst go ;" 
" Though thou mightst live;" "Unless thou couldst read;" 
" IT thou wouldst learn ;" and not " If thou may or can go," 
fyc. It is sufficient, on this point, to adduce the authorities 
of Johnson and Lowth ; " If thou shouldsl go.;" Johnson. 
"If thou maysi, might J, or couldst \ove ;" Lowth. Some 
authors think, that when that expresses the motive or end, 
the termination of these auxiliaries should he varied : as, " I 
advise thee, that thou may beware ;" " He checked thee, 
that thf»u should not presume :" but there does not appear to 
be any ground for this exception. If the expression of " con- 
dition, doubt, contingency," ^c. does not warrant a change 
in the form of these auxiliaries, why should the}' have it, 
when a motive or end is expressed ? The translators of the 
Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction con- 
tended for. " Thou buildest the Avail, that thou mayst be 
their king," JVeh. vi. 6. "There is forgiveness with thee, 
that thou mayst be feared." Psalm cxxx. 4. 

From the' preceding observations under this rule, it ap- 
pears, that with respect to what is termed the present tense 
of any verb, when the circumstances of contingency and futu- 
rity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of the second 
and third persons singular ; that without the concurrence of 
those circumstances, the terminations should not be altered ; 
and that the verb and the auxiliaries of the three past tenses, 
and the auxiliaries of the first future, undergo no alterations 
whatever: except the imperfect of the verb to be., which, in 
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the 
singular number. See page 65. The Note. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it 
will be natural for the student to inquire, what is the extent 
of the subjunctive mood ? Some grammarians think it ex- 
tends only to what is called the present tense of verbs gener- 
ally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity; 
and to the imperfect tense of the verb to be, when it denotes 
contingency, fy-e. : because in these tenses only, the form of 
the verb admits of variation ; and they suppose that it is va- 
riation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. It 
is the opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we 
concur,) that, besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs 
in the three past, and the two future tenses, ar j in the sub- 
junctive mood, when they denote, contingency or uncertain- 
ty, though they have not any change of termination ; and 
that, when contingency is not signified, the verb, through all 
tb^se five tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, whatever 
•onjunction may attend it. They think, that the definition 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 19. 

and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to 
change of termination, but that they refer merely to the man- 
ner of the being, action, or passion, signified by the verb ; and 
that the subjunctive mood may as properly exist without a 
variation of the verb, as the infinitive mood, which has no ter- 
minations different from those of the indicative. The decis- 
ion of this point may not, by some grammarians, be thought 
of much consequence. But the rules which ascertain the 
propriety of varying, or not varying, the terminations of the 
verb, will certainly be deemed important. These rules may 
be well observed, without a uniformity of sentiment respect- 
ing the nature and limits of the subjunctive mood. For fur- 
ther remarks on the subject, see pages 57, 61 — 63 — 75 — 77, 
80—82.* 

9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions 
belonging to them, either expressed or understood :' as, 

1st, Though, — yet, nevertheless : as " Though he was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor." " Though powerful, he 
was meek." 

2d, Whether — or : as, " Whether he will go or not, 1 can- 
not tell." 

3d, Either — or : as, " 1 will either send it, or bring it my- 
self." 

4th, Neither — nor : as, " Neither he nor 1 am able to com- 
pass it." 

5th, As — as : expressing a comparison of equality : as, 
" She is as amiable as her sister ; and as much respected." 

6th, As — so : expressing a comparison of equality : as, "As 
the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7th, As — so: expressing a comparison of quality : as, "As 
the one dieth, so dieth the other." " As he reads, they read." 

* We bave stated, for the student's information, the different opinions ot 
grammarians, respecting the English Subjunctive Mood : First, that which 
supposes there is no such mood in our language; Stcondhj, that which extends 
it no farther than the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which we 
have adopted, and explained at large ; and which, in general, corresponds with 
the vie.ws of the most approved writers on English Grammar. We may add a 
Fourth, opinion; which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This 
opinion admits the arrangement we bave given, with one variation, namely, 
that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms : 1st, that 
- which simply denotes contingency : as, " If he desires it, I will perform the 
operation :" that is, " If he now desires it 5" 2dly, that which denotes both con- 
tingency and futurity ; as, "If be dtsire it. I will perform the operation ;" that 
is, "If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunctive mood, 
claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and 
regular; of >eing more conformable ihan any other, to the definition of the 
subjunctive ; and of not referring to the indicative mood forma of expression, 
which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear 
ft strict examination. 

It 



Rule 19.) syntax. 153 

8th, So — as : with a verb expressing a comparison of 
quality : as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the 
sanctuary." 

9th, So — as : with a negative and an adjective expressing 
a comparison of quantity : as, " Pompey was not so great a 
general as Csesar, nor so great a man." 

10th, So — that : expressing a consequence : as, "He was 
so fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 

"The conjunctions or and no?' may often be used, with near- 
ly equal propriety. " The king, whose character was not 
sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure." 
In this sentence, or would perhaps have been better : but, in 
general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part 
of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the 
expression. 

10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly 
and in pairs. The following are examples of this improprie- 
ty. "THe relations are so "uncertain, as that they require a 
great deal of examination :" it should be, "/Aa/they require," 
^*c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not appre- 
hend some ill consequences :" it ought to be, " so sanguine as 
not to appVehend," $,*c. ; or, " no man, how sanguine soever, 
who did not," $x. " To trust in him is no more but to ac- 
knowledge his power." " This is no other but the gate of 
paradise." In both theseinstanc.es, ti^should bethan. " We 
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope : whether 
they are such as Ave may reasonably expect from them what 
they propose," fyc. It ought to be, " that we may reasona- 
bly," fyc. " The duke had not behaved with that loyalty «-js 
he ought to have done ;" " with which he ought." " In the 
order as they lie in his preface :'' it should he, "in order as 
they lie ;" or, " in the order in which they lie." " Such 
sharp replies that cost him his life ;" " as cost him," fyc " If 
he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly paint- 
ed ;" " such a scarecrow," SfC. " 1 wish 1 could do that jus- 
tice to his memory, to oblige the painters," S,c ; "do such 
justices to oblige"," ^-c. 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with 
the conjunctiva form of a verb. " Were there no difference, 
there would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a 
sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, " had he done this, 
he had escaped ;" a Hact the limitations on the prerogative 
been, in liis time, quite fixed ami certnin, Ms integrity had 
made him regard as sacred; the boundaries of the conslittt- 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 20. 

tion." The sentence in the common form would have read 
thus: "If the limitations on the prerogative had been, fyc. 
his integrity would have made him regard," S,-c. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun 
such, has the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let such as 
presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" 
which is equivalent to, " Let them who presume," ^'c. But 
when used by itself, this particle is to be considered as a con- 
junction, or perhaps as an adverb. Seethe Key. _ * 

Our language wants a conjunction adapted to familiar style, 
equivalent to notwithstanding. The words for all that, seem 
to be too low. "The word was in the mouth of every one, 
but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret." i 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do 
much better in the following sentence. " It cannot be other- 
wise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of 
every other language." % 

The word except is far preferable to other than. " It ad- 
mitted of no effectual cure other than amputation." Except 
is also to be preferred to all but. " They were happy all but 
the stranger." I 

In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improp- 
erly omitted ; " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine 
a to hope." " I must, however, be so just a to own." « 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and under- 
stood ; as, " I beg you would come to me ;" " See thou do 
it not ;" instead of " that you would," " that thou do." But 
in the following and many similar phrases, this conjunction 
were much better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory 
of their virtues remain to posterity." It should be, " yet it 
hjust that the memory." fyc. 

RULE XX. 

When the qualities of different things are compared, the 
latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunc- 
tion than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed 
by the verb or the preposition, expressed or undeWood : 
as, " Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, "than I am." 
44 They loved him more than me ;" i. e. " more than they 
loved me." " The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, 
but much better by Solomon than him ;" that is, " than 
by him."* 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the pre- 
ceding as well as in some other forms, may be discovered, by 

* See the Tenth, or any subsequent, edition of the Key ; Rule xx. The Note. 

10c 



Rule 21.) syntax. 155 

supplying the words that are not expressed; which will be 
evident from the following instances of erroneous construc- 
tion. " He can read better than me." " He is as good a3 
her." "Whether I be present or no." "Who did this? 
Me." By supplying the words understood in each of these 
phrases, their impropriety and governing rule will appear : 
as, " Better than I can read ;" " As good as she is ;" "Pres- 
ent or not present;" "1 did it." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been 
committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a further 
caution and direction to the learner. " Thou art a much 
greater loser than me by his death." " She suffers hourly 
more than me." " We contributed a third more than the 
Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than 
us." "King Charles, and more than him, the duke and the 
popish faction, were at liberty to form new schemes." " The 
drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the re- 
ception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he 
was ndt worthy to bear. " " It was not the work of so em- 
inent an author, as him to whom it was first imputed." " A 
stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than them both." " If the king give us leave, we 
may perform the office as well as them that do." In these 
passages it ought to be, " 7, we, he, they, respectively." 

When the relative who immediately" follows than, it seems 
to form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that connexion, 
the relative must be in the objective case; as, "Alfred, than 
whom, a greater king never reigned," ^-c. " Beelzebub, than 
ivhom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," fyc It is remarka- 
ble that in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, 
it would be in the nominative case; as, "A greater king never 
reigned than he," that is, " than he was." " Beelzebub, than 
he," fyc. ; that is, " than he sat." The phrase than whum^ is, 
however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

RULE XXI. 

Tojj|void disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words, 
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He was a 
learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good 
man ;" we make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a 
learned, wise, and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sen- 
tence, weaken its force, or be attended with an improprie- 
ty, they must be expressed. In the sentence, " We are 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 21. 

apt to love who love us," the word them should be sup- 
plied. " A beautiful field and trees," is not proper lan- 
guage. It should be, " Beautiful fields and trees ;" or, 
* A beautiful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less ellip- 
tical ; some examples of which may be seen under the dif- 
ferent parts of speech. 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used ; " A man, wo- 
man, and child:" that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." 
" A house and garden ;" that is, " a house and a garden." 
"The sun and moon ;" that is, "the sun and the moon.'' 
"The day and hour ;" that is, "the day and the hour." In 
all these instances, the article beingonce expressed, the repe- 
tition of it becomes unnecessary. There is, however, an ex 
ception to this observation, when some peculiar emphasis 
requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence. "Not 
only the year, but the day and the hour." In this case, the 
ellipsis of the last article would be improper. When a dif- 
ferent form of the article is requisite, the article is also prop- 
erly repeated : as, " a house and an orchard ;" instead of, 
" a house and orchard." 

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following man- 
ner. "The laws of God and man ;" that is, "the laws of 
God and the laws of man." In some very emphatical ex- 
pressions, the ellipsis should not be used: as, "Christ the 
power of God, and the wisdom of God ;" which is more em- 
phatical than, " Christ the power and wisdom of God." 

~3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following 
manner. " A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, "a 
delightful garden and a delightful orchard ;" "A little man 
and woman ;" that is, " A little man and a little woman." 
In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought 
to have exactly the same signification, and to be quite as 
proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to the for- 
mer ; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to n^ins of 
different numbers : as : "A magnificent house and gardens." 
In this case it is better to use another adjective ; as, " A 
magnificent house and fine gardens." 

4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun. "1 love 
and fear him ;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him." " My 
house and lands ;" that is, "my house and my lands." In 
these instances the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; 
but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not 

i2e 



Rule 21.) SYNTAX. 157 

be used ; as, " His friends and his foes ;" " My sons and my 
daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pro- 
noun is usually omitted : as, " This is the man they love ;" 
instead of, "This is the man whom they love." "These are 
the goods they bought ;" for, " These are the goods ickich 
they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the rela- 
tive pronoun expressed : as it is more proper to say, " The 
{>osture in which I lay," than, " In the posture I lay :" " The 
jorse on which I rode, fell down ;" than " The horse I rode, 
fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a 
sentence together, and to prevent obscurity and confusion, 
should answer to each other with great exactness. " We 
speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen." 
Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be sup- 
plied : as, " We speak that ivhich we do know, and testify 
that tokickwe have seen." 

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instan- 
ces. "The man was old and crafty;" that is, "the man 
was old, and the man was crafty." " She was young, and 
beautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was young, she was 
beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretch- 
ed, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would till 
up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought to be re- 
peated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one prop- 
erty above the rest, that property must be placed last, and the 
ellipsis supplied: as, " She is young and beautiful, and she i9 
good." 

"I went to see and hear him ;" that is, " I went to see and 
I went to hear him." In this instance there is not only an 
ellipsis of the governing verb J went, but likewise of the sign 
of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of 
the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, arc frequently used 
alone, to spare the repetition of the verb : as, " He regards 
his word, but thou dost not:" i.e. "dost not regard it." 
M We succeeded, but they did not ;" " did not succeed." " 1 
have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" " hast not learned." 
*They must, and they shall be punished;" that is, v * they 
must be punished." See the Key. 

6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following man- 
ner. "He spoke and acted wisely ;" that is, "He spoke 
wisely, and he acted wisely." "Thrice 1 went and offered 

O 13c 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 21. 

my service ;" that is, " Thrice I went, and thrice I offered my 
service." 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verh, is 
seen in the following instances : "He went into the abbeys, 
halls, and public buildings ;" that is, " he went into the ab- 
beys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public 
buildings." " He also went through all the streets and lanes 
of the city ;" that is, " Through all the streets, and through 
all the lanes," fyc. "He spoke to every man and woman 
there," that is, " to every man and to every woman." " This 
cU\y, next month, last year ;" that is, " o"n this day, in the 
next month, in the last year ;" " The Lord do that which 
seemeth him good ;" that is, " which seemeth to him.' 1 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They 
confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love, of their Cre- 
ator ;" i. e. " the power, and wisdom, and goodness, and love 
of." $-c. " Though 1 love him, 1 do not flatter him," that is, 
" Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; it, 
nowever, is sometimes used : as, " Oh ! pity and shame !" 
that is, " Oh pity ! Oh shame !" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the Eng- 
lish language, numerous examples of it might be given ; but 
only a few more can be admitted here. 

In the following instance there is a very considerable one : 
11 He will often argue, that if this part of our trade were well 
cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if another, 
from another ;" that is, " He will often argue, that if this part 
pf our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one 
nation, and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, 
w r e should gain from another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the 
ellipsis : " Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood ;" 
i. e. " to let out blood." " To let down ;" i. e. " to let it fall 
or slide down." " To walk a mile:" i. e. "to walk through 
the space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" i. e. " To sleep 
through all the night." " To go a fishing ;" " To go a hunt- 
ing :" l. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on 
a hunting party." " I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of 
the clock. " By sea, by land, on shore :" i. e. rt By the sea, 
by the land, on the shore." 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the 
impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land 
was always possessed, during pleasure, by those intrusted 
with the command ;" it should be, " those^?erson$ intrusted ;" 

14c 



Rule 22.) syntax. 159 

or, " those who were intrusted." " If he had read further, he 
would have found several of his objections might have been 
spared :" that is, " he -would have found that several of his 
objections,"' ^-c. " There is nothing men are more deficient 
in, than knowing their own characters." It ought to be, 
" nothing in which men ;" and, "than in knowing." "I scarce- 
ly know any part of natural philosophy would yield more 
variety and use ;" it should be, " which would yield," 5,-c. " In 
the temper of mind he was then ;" i. e. "in ivhich he then 
was." " The little satisfaction and consistency, to be found 
in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, made me 
betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures :" it 
ought to be , " which are to be found," and " which I have met 
with." " He desired they might go to the altar together, and 
jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due ;" i. 
e. " to him to whom," tyc. 

RULE XXII. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
other : a regular and dependent construction, throughout, 
should be carefully preserved. The following sentence is 
therefore inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so 
much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, " He was more 
beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The first example under this rule, presents a most irregu- 
lar construction, namely, " He was more beloved as Cinthio." 
The words more and so much, are very improperly stated as 
having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is 
not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; because it cannot 
lead to any discordant or improper construction, and the sup- 
p]y would often be harsh or inelegant. See p. 153. 

As the £2d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it 
may, at the first view, appear to be too general to be useful. 
But by ranging under it a number of sentences peculiarly 
constructed, we shall perceive, that it is calculated to ascer- 
tain the true grammatical construction of many modes of ex- 
pression, which none of the particular rules can sufficiently 
explain. 

"This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, 
is, or shall In published." It oughl to be, "that has been, or 
shall be published." " He was guided by interests always 
different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;"' 
" different from ;" or, M always different from those of the 
community, and sometimi s contrary to them." " Will it he 
urged that these books are as old, or even older than tradi- 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 22. 

tion ?" The words, " as old," and " older," cannot have a 
common regimen ; it should be " as old as tradition, or even 
older." " It requires few talents to which most men are not 
born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least they 
may not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently miti- 
gates and breaks the teeth of the common law." In this 
construction, the first verb is said, " to mitigate the teeth of 
the common law," which is an evident solecism. " Mitigates 
the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would have 
been grammatical. 

" They presently grow into good humour, and good lan- 
guage towards the crown :" " grow into good language," is 
very improper. " There is never wanting a set of evil instru- 
ments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy 
lucre, are always ready," fyc. "We say properly, "A man 
acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of private hatred ;" but we 
cannot say, if we w r ould speak English, " he acts out of filthy 
lucre." "To double her kindness and caresses of me ;" the 
word " kindness" requires to be followed by either to or for, 
and cannot be construed with the preposition of. "Never 
was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have 
done this evening:" the first and third clauses, viz. "Never 
was man so teased, as 1 have done this evening," cannot be 
joined without an impropriety ; and to connect the second 
and third, the word that must be substituted for as; "Or 
suffered half the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, " half 
so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the folio iving sentence abounds with ad- 
verbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one an- 
other : " How much soever the reformation of this degenerate 
age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a 
more comfortable prospect of future times." The sentence 
would be more correct in the following form: " Though the 
reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired 
of," cVc. 

" Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life 
with the blood-thirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and 
their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage, introduced, 
by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as a con- 
tinuation of the principal and independent part of the sen- 
tence, but of the dependent part, the relative whose should 
have been used instead of the possessive their; viz. "and 
whose right-hand is full of gifts." ' 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered 
into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared 
for them that love him." There seems to be an impropriety 

I6e 



SYNTAX. 161 

m this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double 
capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the 
nominative and objective cases. " Neither hath it entered 
into the heart of man, to conceive the things," c^c. would 
have been regalar. 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and com- 
pounding, those images which Ave have once received, into 
all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very proper to 
say, " altering and compounding thosa images which Ave have 
once receiA'ed, into ail the varieties of picture and vision;" 
but we can with no propriety say, " retaining them into all 
the \ r arieties ;" and yet, according to the manner in Avhich the 
words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for " re- 
taining, altering, and compounding," are participles, each of 
which equally refers to, and governs the subsequent noun, 
those images ; and that noun again is necessarily connected 
with the folloAving preposition, into. The construction might 
easily have been rectified, b} r disjoining the participle retain- 
ing from the other tAvo participles, in this Avay : " We have 
the power of retaining those images Avhich we have once re- 
ceived, and of altering and compounding them into all the 
varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better thus : 
" We have the poAver of retaining, altering, and compounding 
those images Avhich Ave have once received, and 01 forming 
them into all the varieties of picture and vision." 

INTERJECTION. 

For the syntax of the Interjection, see Rule v. Note 11. 
page 113, and Note 9, of Rule'xxi. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

As Ave have finished the explanation of the different parts 
of speech, and the rules for forming them into sentences, it is 
noAV proper to give some examples of the manner in which 
the learners should be exercised, in order to prove their 
knoAvledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called 
parsing. The nature of the subject, as well as the adapta- 
tion of it to learners, requires that it should be divided into 
two parts ; viz. parsing, as it respects etymology alone ; and 
parsing, as it respects both etymology and syntax.* 

Section 1. Specimens of etymological parsing. 
" Virtue ennobles us." 
Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 

* See the " General Directions for using the English Exercises," prefixed to 
ih* Eighth and every subsequent edition of thai book. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

third person, the singular number, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline the noun.) Ennobles is a regular verb active, 
indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singu- 
lar. (Repeat the present tense, the imperfect tense, and the 
perfect participle.]) Us is a personal pronoun, of the first per- 
son plural, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) 
" Goodness will be rewarded." 
Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
the third person, the sin'gular number, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline it.) Will be rewarded is a regular verb, in the 
passive voice, the indicative mood, the first future tense, and 
the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, the im- 
perfect tense, and the perfect participle.) 

" Strive to improve." 

Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative mood, 
and of the second person singular. (Repeat the present tense, 
fyc.) To improve is a regular verb neuter, and in the infinitive 
mood. (Repeat the present tense, fyc.) 

" Time flies, O ! how swiftly." 

Time is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
(Decline the noun.) Flus is an irregular verb neuter, the in- 
dicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular. 
(Repeat the present tense, fyc.) O! is an interjection. How 
and swiftly are adverbs. 

" Gratitude is a delightful emotion." 

Gratitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, 
the third person, the singular number, and in the nominative 
case. (Decline it.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person singular. (Re- 
peat the present tense, fyc.) A is the indefinite article. De- 
lightful is an adjective in the positive state. (Repeat the de- 
grees of comparison.) Emotion is a common substantive of 
the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and 
in the nominative case. (Decline it.) 

" They who forgive, act nobly." 
They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural 
number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Whoisa. 
relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (Decline it.) 
Forgive is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present 
tense, and the third person plural. (Repeat the present tense, 
fyc) Act is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present 

t The learner should occasionally repeat all the moods and tenses of the verb. 



SYNTAX. 163 

tense, and the third person plural. (Repeat, fyc.) Nolly is an 
adverb of quality. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) 
"By living temperately, our health is promoted." 

By is a preposition. Living is the present participle of the 
regular neuter verh, " to live." (Repeat the participles.) 
Temperately is an adverb of quality. Our is an adjective 
pronoun of the possessive kind. ('Decline it.) Health is a 
common substantive, of the third person, the singular num- 
ber, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Is promoted 
is a regular verb passive, indicative mood, present tense, and 
the third person singular. [Repeat, fyc.) 

" "We should be kind to them, who are unkind to us." 

We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural 
number, and in the nominative case. [Decline it.) Shouldht 
is an irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the imper- 
fect tense, and the first person plural. [Repeat the present 
tense, fyc.) Kind is an adjective, in the positive state. [Re- 
peat the degrees of comparison.) To is a preposition. Them 
is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, 
and in the objective case. [Decline it.) Who is a relative 
pronoun, and in the nominative case. [Decline, it.) Are 
is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, 
and the third person plural. [Repeat, fyc.) Unkind is an ad- 
jective in the positive state. [Rtpeat the degrees of compari- 
son.) To is a preposition. Us is a personal pronoun, of the 
first person, the plural number, and in the objective case. 
[Decline it.) 

Section 2. Specimens of syntactical parsing. 
"Vice produces misery." 

Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the 
third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. 
Produces is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present 
tense, the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
" rice," according to rule i. which says; [here repeal the 
ride.) Misery is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
der, the third person, the singular number, and the objective 
case, governed by the active verb '• produces,'' according to 
Rule xi. which says, fyc. 

" Peace and joy are virtue's crown." 

Peace is a common substantive. [Repeat the gender, per- 
son, number, and case.) And is a copulative conjunction. 
Joy is a common substantive. [Repeal the person, numbtr, 
and case.) Jlrt is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, 
present tense, and the third person plural, agreeing with the 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

nominative case " peace and joy," according to rule ii. 
which says ; (here repeat the rule.) Virtue's is a common 
substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in 
the possessive case, governed by the substantive " crown," 
agreeably to rule x, which says, fy-c. Crown is a common 
substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the sin- 
gular number, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the 
fourth note of rule xi. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." 
Wisdom is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, 
person, number, and case.) Or is a disjunctive conjunction. 
Folly is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, number, 
and case.) Governs is a regular verb active, indicative mood, 
present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with 
its nominative case " wisdom" or " folly," according to rule 
hi. Avhich says, ^-c. Us is a personal pronoun, of the first 

Eerson, plural number, and in the objective case, governed 
y the active verb " governs," agreeably to rule xi. which 
says, ty-c. 

" Every heart knows its sorrows." 
Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind» 
agreeing with its* substantive " heart," according to Note 2 
under rule viii. which says, fyc. Heart is a common sub- 
stantive. (Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) 
Knows is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present 
tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case 
"heart,'' according to rule i. which says, fyc. Its is a per- 
sonal pronoun, of the third person singular, and of the neuter 
gender, to agree with its substantive " heart," according to 
kule v. which says, fyc. it is in the possessive c;ase, governed 
by the noun " sorrows," according to rule x. which says, ^c. 
Soirows is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
plural number, and the objective case, governed by the active 
verb " knows," according to Rule xi. which says, ^c. 
"The man is happy who lives wisely." 
The is the definite article. Man is a common substantive. 
Rtptat the person, number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb 
neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person 
singular, agreeing with the nominative case " man," accord- 
ing to rule i. which says. fyc. Happy is an adjective in the 
positive state. Who is a relative pronoun, which has for its 
antecedent, "man," with which it agrees in gender and num- 
ber, according to rule v. which says, ^-c. Lives is a regular 
verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, third person 



SYNTAX. 165 

singular, agreeing with its nominative "who," according to 
rule vi. which says, &fc. Wisely is an adverb of quality, 
placed after the verl^according to rule xv. 
7 " WhcTpreserves us?^ J 
Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and in 
the nominative case singular. The word to which it relates, 
(its subsequent.) is the noun or pronoun containing the an- 
swer to the question ; agreeably to a note under rule vi. 
Preserves is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present 
tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative 
" who," according to rule vi. which says, Sfc. Us is a per- 
sonal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number, case, and rule.) 

" Whose, house is that ? My brother's and mine. 
Who inhabit it ? We." 

Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and 
relates to the following words, "Brother's" and "mine," 
agreeably to note under rule vi. It is in the possessive case, 
governed by " house," according to rule x. which says, $'c. 
House is a common substantive. [Repeat the gender, person, 
number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative case. '' house," according to rule 1. which 
says, ^-c. That is an adjective pronoun of the demonstra- 
tive kind. My is an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind. 
Brother's is a common substantive, of the third person, the 
singular number, and in the possessive case, governed by 
" house" understood, according to rule x. and a note under 
Rule vi. Jlndh a copulative conjunction. Mine is a per- 
sonal pronoun, of the first person, the singular number, and in 
the possessive case, according to a note under rule x. and 
another under rule vi. Who is a relative pronoun of the 
interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nominative 
case, and relates to " we" following, according to a note under 
rule vi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. [Repeat the mood, 
tense, person S,"c.) // is a personal pronoun, of the third per- 
son, the singular number, and in the objective ease, governed 
by the active verb " inhabit," according to rule xi. which 
says, Sfc. We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the 
plural number, and the nominative case to the verb ' ; inhabit' 1 
understood. The words " inhabit it" are implied after " wc," 
agreeably to a note under rule vi. 

" Remember to assist the distressed." 

Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, the 
second person singular, and agrees with its nominative case 

21 e 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" thou" understood. To assist is a regular verb active, in the 
infinitive mood, governed by the preceding verb " remem- 
ber," according to rule xii. which says, <^c. The is the 
definite article. Distressed is an adjective put substantively. 
" We are not unemployed." 
We is a personal pronoun. [Repeat the person, number, 
and case.) Are. is an irregular verb neuter. [Repeat the 
mood, tense, jjerson, fyc.) JVot is an adverb of negation. Un- 
employed is an adjective in the positive state. The two neg- 
atives not and un, form an affirmative, agreeably to rule xvi. 
which says, ^'c. 

"This bounty has relieved you and us; and has gratified 
the donor." 

This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind. 
Bounty is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, num- 
ber, and case.) Has relieved is a regular verb active, indica- 
tive mood, perfect tense, third person singular, agreeing with 
its nominative " bounty," according to Rule 1. which says, 
^•c. You is a personal pronoun, of the second person plural, 
and in the objective case. (Repeat the government and rule.) 
And is a copulative conjunction. Us is a personal pronoun, 
in the objective case. You and us are put in the same case, 
according to rule xviii. which says, &fc. And is a copula- 
tive conjunction. Has gratified is a regular verb active, in- 
dicative mood, perfect tense, and the third person singular, 
agreeing with its nominative " bounty," understood. " Has 
relieved," and " Has gratified," are in the same mood and 
tense, according to rule xviii. which says, $'c. The is the 
definite article. Donor is a common substantive, of the third 
person ,the singular number, and the objective case, governed 
by the active verb " has gratified," according to Rule xi. 
which says, fy-c. See the Octavo Grammar, on Gender. 
" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and in the nominative case. Will be 
pardoned is a regular passive verb, indicative mood, first fu- 
ture tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with it3 
nominative "he," according to rule i. and composed of the 
auxiliaries " will be," and the perfect participle " pardoned." 
JVot is a negative adverb. Unless is a disjunctive conjunction. 
He is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number, gen- 
der, and case.) Repent h a regular verb neuter, in the sub- 
junctive mood, tin: present tense, the third person singular, 
and agrees with its nominative case " he," according to 

22e 



SYNTAX. 167 

Rule 1. which says, ^'c.) It is in the subjunctive mood, be- 
cause it implies a future sense, and denotes uncertainty 
signified by the conjunction " unless," agreeably to Rule 19, 
and the notes. 

" Good works being neglected, devotion is false." 
Good ivorks bting neglected, being independent of the rest 
of the sentence, is the case absolute, according to the fifth 
note of Rule 1. Devotion is a common substantive. (Repeat 
the number, person, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter. 
(Repeat the mood, tense, person, fyc.) False is an adjective in 
the positive state, and belongs to its substantive " devotion" 
understood, agreeably to Rule vm. which says, $'c. 

"The emperor, Marcus Aurelius, was a wise and virtuous 
prince." 

The is the definite article. Emperor is a common substan- 
tive, of the. masculine gender, the third person, the singular 
number, and in the nominative case. Marcus Aurelius is a 
proper name or substantive, and in the nominative case, be- 
cause it is put in apposition with the substantive "emperor," 
agreeably to the first note of Rule x. Was is an irregular 
verb neuter, indicative mood, imperfect tense, and the third 
person singular, agreeing with its nominative case " emperor." 
A is the indefinite article. Wise is an adjective, and Belongs 
to its substantive " prince." Andh a copulative conjunction. 
Virtuous is an adjective, and belongs, $'c. Prince is a com- 
mon substantive, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the 
fourth note of Rule xi. 

"To err is human." 

To err, is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to 
the verb " is." Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative 
mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing 
with its nominative case "to err,*' agreeably to note 1, under 
Rule the first. Human is an adjective, and belongs to its 
substantive "nature" understood, according to Rule 8. which 
says, fyc. 

" To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, 
is scarcely one remove from actually committing them." 

To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is 
part of a sentence, which i6 the nominative case to the verb 
"is." /sis an irregular verb neuter, tyc. agreeing with the 
aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nominative case, 
agreeably to Note 1, under Rule the first. Scared}/ is ;ui ad- 
verb. One is a numeral adjective agreeing with it's substan- 



t68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tive " remove." Remove is a common substantive, of the 
neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in 
the nominative case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xi. 
From is a preposition. Committing is the present participle 
of the regular active verb " to commit." Tkem is a personal 
pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the 
objective case, governed by the participle " committing," 
agreeably to Rule xiv. which says, ^'c. 
"Let me proceed." 

This sentence, according to the statement of grammarians 
in general, is in the Imperative mood, of the first person, and 
the singular number. The sentence may, however, be 
analyzed in the following manner. Let is an irregular verb 
active, in the imperative mood, of the second person, the plu- 
ral number, and agrees with its nominative case " you" un- 
derstood : as, " do you let." Me is a personal pronoun, of 
the first person, the singular number, and in the objective 
tase, governed by the active verb " let," agreeably to Rule 
xi. which says, fyc. Proceed is a regular verb neuter, in the 
infinitive mood, governed by the preceding verb " let," ac- 
cording to Rule xii. which says, ^-c. 

" Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. By 
living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." 

Living expensively and luxuriously, is the nominative case 
to the verb " destroyes," agreeably to Note 1, under Rule 1. 
Living frugally and temperately, is a substantive phrase in 
the objective case, governed by the prepositon " by," ac- 
cording to Note 2, under Rule xiv. 

The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefuliy studied by 
the learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to enable him to 
comprehend the nature of this employment ; and sufficiently 
diversified, to qualify him, in other exercises, to point out 
and apply the remaining rules, both principal and sub- 
ordinate. 

24e 



(169) 
PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts : the former teaches the 
true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan- 
tity, EMrHAsis, pause, and tone ; and the latter, the 

laws of VERSIFICATION. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Section 1. Of Accenc. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, 
on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : as, 
in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on 
the letter w, and second syllable, sume, which take the 
accent. 

As words may be formed of a different number of syllables, 
from one to eight or nine, it Avas necessary to have some pe- 
culiar mark to distinguish words from mere syllables ; other- 
wise speech would be only a continued succession of syllables, 
without conveying ideas ; for, as words are the marks of 
ideas, any confusion in the marks, must cause the same in the 
ideas for which they stand. It was therefore necessary, that 
the mind should at once perceive what number of syllables 
belongs to each word, in utterance. This might be done by a 
perceptible pause at the end of each word in speaking, as we 
form a certain distance between them in writing and printing. 
But this would make discourse extremely tedious ; and 
though it might render words distinct, would make the mean- 
ing of sentences confused. Syllables might also be suffi- 
ciently distinguish? 1 by a certain elevation or depression of 
voice upon one sy able of each word, wlrch was the prac- 
P 25e 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect. 1 

tice of some nations. But the English tongue has, for this 
purpose, adopted a mark of the easiest and simplest kind, 
which is called accent, and which effectually answers the end. 

Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has 
one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner; and 
some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more 
letters, has one of its letters thus distinguished. 

Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal 
accent is that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in 
a word from the rest. The secondary accent is that stress 
which we may occasionally place upon another syllable 
besides that which has the principal accent ; in order to 
pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, forcibly, 
and harmoniously : thus, " Complaisant, caravan," and "vi- 
olin," have frequently an accent on the first as well as on the 
last syllable, though a somewhat less forcible one. The 
same may be observed of "Repartee, referee, privateer, 
domineer," &,-c. But it must be observed, that though an 
accent is allowed on the first syllable of these words, it is by 
no means necessary ; they may all be pronounced with one 
accent, and that on the last syllable, without the least devia- 
tion from propriety. 

As emphasis evidently points out the most significant word 
in a sentence ; so, where other reasons do not forbid, the ac- 
cent always dwells with greatest force on that part of the word 
which, from its importance, the hearer has always the great- 
est occasion to observe : and this is necessarily the root or 
body of the word. But as harmony of termination frequent- 
ly attracts the accent from the root to the branches of words, 
so the first and most natural law of accentuation seems to op- 
erate less in fixing the stress than an}' other. Our own Saxon 
terminations, indeed, with perfect uniformity, leave the prin- 
cipal part of the word in quiet possession of what seems its 
lawful property ; but Latin andGreek terminations, of which 
our language is full, assume a right of preserving their original 
accent, and subject almost every word they bestow upon us 
to their own classical laws. 

Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great meas- 
ure by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is 
generally on the root ; in words from the learned languages, 
it is generally on the termination ; and if to these we add the 
different accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them 
from others, we seem to have the three great principles of 
accentuation ; namely, the radical, the terminational, and the 
distinctive. The radical : as, "Love, lovely, loveliness j" the 



Accent.) prosody. 171 

terminational : as, ** Harmony, harmonious;" the distinctive: 
as, " Convert, to convert." 

ACCENT ON DISSYLLABLES. 

Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them ac- 
cented, and but one. It is true, for the sake of emphasis, we 
sometimes lay an equal stress upon two successive syllables : 
as, "Di-rect, some-times ;" but when these words are pro- 
nounced alone, they have never more than one accent. The 
word "a-men," is the only word which is pronounced with 
two accents when alone. 

Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the for- 
mer syllable is commonly accented: as, " Childish, kingdom, 
actest, acted, toilsome, lover, scofler, fairer, foremost, zeal- • 
ous, fulness, meekly, artist. 5 ' 

Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical 
word, have, commonly the accent on the latter : as, "To be- 
seem, to bestow, to return." 

Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the 
verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on 
the former syllable: as, "To cement, a cement; to con- 
tract, a contract ; to presage, a presage." 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom 
have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it on 
the latter syllable : as, " Delight, perfume." Those nouns 
which, in the common order of language, must have preceded 
the verbs, often transmit their accent to the verbs they form, 
and inversely. Thus, the noun " water" must have prece- 
ded the verb " to water," as the verb " to correspond," must 
have preceded the noun "correspondent :" and " to pursue" 
claims priority to " pursuit." So that Ave may conclude, 
wherever verbs deviate from the rule, it is seldom by chance, 
and generally in those words only where a superior law of 
accent takes place. 

All dissyllables ending in y, our, oiv, Jc, ish, c£, ter, age, en, 
et: as, " Cranny, labour, willow, wallow;" except "allow, 
avow, endow, below, bestow ; : ' " battle, banish, cambric, 
battel-, courage, fasten, quiet ;" accent the former syllabic. 

Dissyllable nouns in it, as, " Canker, butter," have the ac- 
cent on the former syllable. 

Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and e final, 
as, "Comprise, escape ;" or having a diphthong in the last syl- 
lable, as, " Appease, reveal ;" or ending in two consonants ; 
as, "Attend ;" have the accents on the latter syllable. 

Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the latter syllable, 
have commonly their accent on the latter syllable ; as, " Ap- 

27e 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect. 1. 

plause ;" except some words in ain : as, u Villain, curtain, 
mountain." 

Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated 
in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syl- 
lable : as, " Lion, riot, quiet, liar, ruin ;" except " create." 

ACCENT ON TRISYLLABLES. 

Trisyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing 
a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word : as, "Loveli- 
ness, tenderness, contemner, wagoner, physical, bespatter, 
commenting;, commending, assurance." 

Trisyliables ending in ous, al, ion : as, " arduous, capital, 
mention," accent the first. 

Trisyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syl- 
lable : as, " Countenance, continence, armament, imminent, 
elegant, propagate ;" unless they are derived from words 
having the accent on the last: as, "Connivance, acquaint- 
ance ;" and unless the middle syllable has a vowel Defore 
two consonants : as, "Promulgate." 

Trisyllables ending in y, as, "entity, specify, liberty, victo- 
ry, subsidy," commonly accent the first syllable. 

Trisyllables ending in re or Ze, accent the first syllable : as, 
"Legible, theatre;" except "Disciple," and some words 
which have a preposition : as, " Example, indenture." 

Trisyllables ending in ude, commonly accent the first syl- 
lable : as, " Plenitude, habitude, rectitude." 

Trisyllables ending in ator, have the accent on the middle 
syllable ; as, " Spectator, creator," ^-c. : except "orator, sen- 
ator, barrator, legator." 

Trisyllables which have in the middle syllable a diphthong, 
as, "Endeavour ;" or a vowel before two consonants; as, 
"Domestic ;" accent the middle syllable. 

Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable, are 
commonly French : as, " Acquiesce, repartee, magazine ;" 
or they are words formed by prefixing one or two syllables 
to a long syllable : as, " Immature, overcharge." 

ACCENT ON POLYSYLLABLES. 

Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, gen- 
erally follow the accent of the words from which they are 
derived : as, " arrogating, continency, incontinently, com- 
mendable, communicableness." 

Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the pe- 
nultimate, or last syllable, but one : as, " Emendator, gladia- 
tor, equivocator, prevaricator." 

Words ending in It commonly have the accent on the first 



Quantity.) prosody. 173 

syllable : as, ''amicable, despicable :" unles the second sylla- 
ble has a vowel before two consonants: as, "Combustible, 
condemnable." 

Words ending in ion, ous, and iy, have their accent on the 
antepenultimate, or last syllable but two : as, " Salvation, 
victorious, activity." 

Words which end in ia, io, and cal, have the accent on the 
antepenult : as, " Cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical." 

The rnles respecting accent, are not advanced as complete 
or infallible : they are merely proposed as useful. Almost 
every rule of every language has its exceptions ; and, in Eng- 
lish, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example 
and authority. 

It may be further observed, that though the syllable on 
which the principal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet 
we may, and do, frequently make the secondary principal, 
and the principal secondary : thus, " Caravan, complaisant, 
violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," may all have 
the greater stress on the first, and the less on the last syllable, 
without any violent offence to the ear : nay, it may be as- 
serted, that the principal accent on the first syllable of these 
words, and none at all on the last, though certainly improper, 
has nothing in it grating or discordant ; but placing an accent 
on the second syllable of these words would entirely derange 
them, and produce great harshness and dissonance. The 
same observations may be applied to " demonstration, lam- 
entation, provocation, navigator, propagator, alligator," and 
every similar word in the language. 

Section 2. Of Quantity. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied 
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the 
vowel ; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronun- 
ciation with the following letters : as, " Fall, bale, mood, 
house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; 
which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the suc- 
ceeding letter : as, " ant, bonnet, hunger,. " 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a 
short one in pronouncing it; thus, "Mate" and " Note" 
should be pronounced as slowly again as " Mat" and 
u N6t." 

Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, "admire, 

P2 29c 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect. 2. 

boldness, sinner." But to this rule there are many excep- 
tions : as, " also, exile, gangrene, umpire, foretaste," fyc. 

When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is often 
more or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or With 
more than one : as, " Sadly, robber ; persist, matchless." 

When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the sylla- 
ble may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi-vowel : as, 
" Cur', can', fulfil'':" but when the accent falls on a mute, 
the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same manner : as, 
" Bubble, captain, totter." 

The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been con- 
sidered under the first part of grammar, which treats of the 
different sounds of the letters ; and therefore we shall dismiss 
this subject with a few general rules and observations. 

1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the ter- 
minations ia, io, and ion, preceded by a single consonant, are 
pronounced long : as, Regalia, folio, adhesion, explosion, 
confusion :" except the vowel t, which in that situation is 
short : as, " Militia, punctilio, decision, contrition." The 
only exceptions to this rule seem to be "Discretion, battal- 
ion, gladiator, national, and rational." 

£d, All vowels that immediately precede the terminations ity 
and ety, are pronounced long: as, " Deity, piety, spontaneity.'' 
But if one consonant precedes these terminations, every pre- 
ceding accented vowel is short ; except m, and the a in " scar- 
city," and " rarity ;" as, " Polarity, severity, divinity, curiosi- 
t} 7 ; — impunity." Even u before two consonants contracts 
itself: as, " Curvity, taciturnity," ^*c. 

3d, Vowels under the principal accent, before the termina- 
tions ic and ical, preceded by a single consonant, are pro- 
nounced short ; thus, " Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmonic," 
have the vowel short; while "Tunic, runic, cubic," have the 
accented vowel long : and " Fanatical, poetical, levitical, ca- 
nonical," have the vowel short ; but " Cubical, musical," iyc. 
have the u long. 

4th, The vowel in the ant -penultimate syllable of words, 
with the following terminatii ts, is always pronounced short. 

loquy ; as, obloquy. parous ; as, oviparous. 

strophe ; as, apostrophe. cracy ; as, aristocracy. 

meter ; as, barometer. g° n y \ as » cosmogony. 

gonal; as, diagonal. phony; as, symphony. 

vorous ; as, carnivorous. nomy ; as, astronomy. 

ftrous ; as, somniferorj tomy ; as, anatomy. 

Jiuous ; as, superfluous , pathy ; as, antipathy. 



fluent; as mellifluent. 



SOe 



Emphasis.) prosody. 175 

As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agree- 
able to the ear ; and as quantity, or proportion of time in ut- 
terance, greatly depends on a due attention to the accent ; it 
is absolutely necessary for every person who would attain a 
just and pleasing delivery, to be master of that point. See 
this section in the Octavo Grammar. 

Section 3. Of Emphasis. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how 
they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em- 
phatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of 
voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

On the right management of the emphasis depends the 
life of pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on any words, 
not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but 
the meaning often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be pla- 
ced wrong, we shall pervert and confound the meaning whol- 
ly. To give a common instance : such a simple question as 
this, " Do you ride to town to-day ?" is capable of no fewer 
than four different acceptations, according as the emphasis is 
differently placed on the words. If it be pronounced thus: 
" Do you ride to town to-day ?' the answer may naturally be, 
"No, we send a servant in our stead." If thus : "Do you 
ride to town to-day ?" answer, " No, we intend to walk." 
" Do you ride to toivn to-day ?" " No, Ave ride into the 
country." " Do you ride to town to-day 7" "No, but we 
shall to-morrow." In like manner, in solemn discourse, the 
whole force and beauty of an expression often depend on the 
emphatic word ; and we may present to ths hearers quite 
different views of the same sentiment, by placing the em- 
phasis differently. In the following words of our Saviour, 
observe in what different lights the thought is placed, ac- 
cording as the words are pronounced. "Judas, betray tst 
thou the son of man with a kiss ?" " B( trayest thou," makes 
the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. "Betrayest 
thou" makes it rest upon Judas's connexion with his master. 
" Betrayest thou the son of man" rests it upon our Saviour's 
personal character and eminence. " Betrayest thou the son 
of man with a kiss?" turns it upon his prostituting the si c nal 
of peace and friendship to tie purpose of destruction. 

The emphasis often 'ies < i the word that asus a question: 
as, " Who said so ?" " ? he. 1 will ho. come ?" What shall I 
do?" "Whither shall g ?" '• Why dost inou weep?" 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect 3. 

And. -when two words are set in contrast, or in opposition 
to one another, they are both emphatic ; as, " He is the 
tyrant, not the father, of his people ;" " His subjects fear 
him, but they do not love him." 

Some sentences are so full and comprehensive, that al- 
most every word isemphatical : as, "Ye hills and dales, ye 
rivers, woods, and plains :*' or, as that pathetic expostulation 
in the prophecy of Ezekiel, " Why will ye die !" In the lat- 
ter short sentence, every word is emphatical ; and on which 
ever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, 
third, or fourth, it strikes out a different sense, and opens a 
new subject of moving expostulation. 

As accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and 
makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest; so em- 
phasis ennobles the word to which it belongs, and presents it 
m a stronger light to the understanding. VVere there no ac- 
cents, words would be resolved into their original syllables : 
were there no emphasis, sentences would be resolved into 
their original words ; and, in this case, the hearer would be 
under the painful necessity, first, of making out the words, 
and afterwards, their meaning. 

Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple, 
when it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any 
proposition ; complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks 
also some affection or emotion of the mind ; or gives a mean- 
ing to words, which they would not have in their usual ac- 
ceptation. In the former case, emphasis is scarcely more 
than a stronger accent, with little or no change of tone ; when 
it is complex, besides force, there is always superadded a 
manifest change of tone. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple em- 
phasis : " And Nathan said to David, Thou art the man." 
The emphasis on thou, serves only to point out the meaning 
of the speaker. But in the sentence which follows, we per- 
ceive an emotion of the speaker superadded to the simple 
meaning : " Why will ye die !" 

As the emphasis often falls on words in different parts of 
the same sentence, so it is frequently required to be contin- 
ued, with a little variation, on two, and sometimes three 
words together. The following sentence exemplifies both 
the parts of this position : " If you seek to make one rich, 
study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 
Emphasis may be further distinguished, into the weaker and 
the stronger emphasis. In the sentence, " Exercise and tem- 
perance strengthen the constitution ;" we perceive more 
force on the word strengthen, than on any other ; though it is 

S2« 



Emphasis.) prosody. 1?7 

not equal to the stress which we apply to the word indiffer- 
ent, in the following sentence : " Exercise and temperance 
strengthen even an indifferent constitution." It is also prop- 
er to remark, that the words exercise, temperance, constitution, 
in the last example but one, are pronounced with greater 
force, than the participles and and the ; and yet those words 
cannot properly be called emphatical : for the stress that is 
laid on them, is no more than sufficient to convey distinctly 
the meaning of each word. — From these observations it ap- 
pears, that the smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, 
conjunctions, prepositions, ^c. are, in general, obscurely and. 
feeoly expressed ; that the substantives, verbs, and more sig- 
nificant words, are firmly and distinctly pronounced ; and 
that the emphatical words, those which mark the meaning of 
a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar stress and energy, 
though varied according to the degree of their importance. 

Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of 
quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, in 
words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when these 
words are ranged in sentences ;* the long being changed into 
short, the short into long, according to the importance of the 
words with regard to meaning : and as it is by emphasis only, 
that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be the 
regulator of the quantity. A few examples will make this 
point very evident. 

Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn the secret power, i^c. 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear — 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear — 
Pleas'd thou shalt hear — though not behold the fair — 
In the first of these instances, the words pleas'a' and hear, 
being equally emphatical, are both long ; whilst the two in- 
termediate words, thou and shalt, being rapidly passed over 
as the sense demands, are reduced to a short quantity. 

In the second instance, the word thou by being the most 
important, obtains the chief, or rather the sole emphasis ; 
and thus, it is not only restored to its natural long quantity, 
but obtains from emphasis a still greater degree or length, 
than when pronounced in its separate state. This greater 
degree of length, is compensated by the diminution of quan- 
tity in the words pleased and hear, which are sounded shorter 
than in the preceding instance. The word shalt still contin- 
ues short. Here we may also observe, that though thou is 
long in the first part of the verse, it becomes short when re- 
peated in the second, on account of the more forcible empha- 
sis belonging to the word alone, whieh follows it. 

In the third instance, the word shall having the emphasis, 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect. 3. 

obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible to pro- 
long the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure mute, yet in 
this, as in all similar instances, the additional quantity is to be 
made out by a rest of the voice, proportioned to the impor- 
tance of the word. In this instance, we may also observe, 
that the word shall, repeated in the second part of the line, is 
reduced again to a short quantity. 

In the fourth instance, the word Mar placed in opposition 
to the word behold, in the latter part of the line, obtains from 
the sense the chief emphasis, and a proportionate length. 
The words thou and shall, are again reduced to short quanti- 
ties ; and the word pleas'd lends some of the time wnich it 
possessed, to the more important word hear. 

From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of our 
syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis.— To ob- 
serve a due measurement of time, on all occasions, is doubt- 
less very difficult ; but by instruction, attention, and practice, 
the difficulty may be overcome. 

Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and 
syllables, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the accent. 
This is demonstrable from the following examples. 

" He shall i?ierease, but I shall decrease." " There is a 
difference between giving and /drgiving." " In this species 
of composition, ^/awsibility is much more essential than 
^/•dbability." In these examples, the emphasis requires the 
accent to be placed on syllables, to which it does not com- 
monly belong. 

In order to acquire the proper management of the empha- 
sis, the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to be giv- 
en, is, that the speaker or reader study to attain a just con- 
ception of the force and spirit of the sentiments which he is 
to pronounce. For to lay the emphasis with exact proprie- 
ty, is a constant exercise of good sense and attention. It is 
far from being an inconsiderable attainment. It is one of the 
greatest trials of a true and just taste ; and must arise from 
feeling delicately ourselves, and from judging accurately, 
of what is fittest to strike the feelings of others. 

There is one error, against which it is particularly proper to 
caution the learner ; namely, that of multiplying emphatica ; . 
words too much. It is only by a prudent reserve in the use 
of them, that we can give them any weight. If they recur 
too often ; if a speaker or reader attempts to render every 
thing which he expresses of high importance, by a multitude 
of strong emphases, we soon learn to pay little regard to 
them. To crowd every sentence with emphatical words, is 
like crowding all the pages of a book with Italic characters, 



Pauses.) prosody. 179 

which as to the effect, is just the same as to use no such dis- 
tinctions at all. 

Section 4. Of Pauses. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total 
cessation of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many- 
cases, a measurable space of time. 

Pauses are equally necessary to the speaker, and the 
hearer. To the speaker, that he may take breath, without 
which he cannot proceed far in delivery ; and that he may, 
by these temporary rests, relieve the organs of speech, which 
otherwise would be soon tired by continued action : to the 
hearer, that the ear also may be relieved from the fatigue, 
which it would otherwise endure from a continuity of sound ; 
and that the understanding may have sufficient time to mark 
the distinction of sentences, and their several members. 

There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatical pauses ; 
and next, such as mark the distinctions of the sense. An 
emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of 
peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's 
attention. Sometimes, before such a thing is said, we usher 
it in with a pause of this nature. Such pauses have the same 
effect as a strong emphasis ; and are subject to the same 
rules; especially to the caution just now given, of not re- 
peating them too frequently. For as they excite uncommon 
attention, and of course raise expectation, if the importance 
of the matter is not fully answerable to such expectation, 
they occasion disappointment and disgust. 

But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, 
to mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to 
allow the speaker to draw his breath ; and the proper and 
delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the most nice and 
difficult articles of delivery. In all reading, and public speak- 
ing, the management of the breath requires a good deal of 
care, so as not to oblige us to divide words from one another, 
which have so intimate a connexion, that they ought to be 
pronounced with the same breath, and without the least sepa- 
ration. Many sentences are miserably mangled, and the 
force of the emphasis totally lost, by the divisions bring 
made in the wrong place. To avoid this, every one, white 
he is speaking or reading, should be very careful to provide a 
full supply of breath for what he. is to utter. It is a great 
mistake to imagine, that the breath must be drawn only at 
the end of a period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It 
may easily be gathered at the intervals of the period, when 
the voice is only suspended for a moment ; ami, by thU 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Sect. 4. 

management, one may always have a sufficient stock for car- 
rying on the longest sentence, without improper inter- 
ruptions. 

Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed 
upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, 
sensible conversation ; and not upon the stiff artificial manner 
which we acquire, from reading books according to the 
common punctuation. It will by no means be sufficient to 
attend to the points used in printing ; for these are far from 
marking all the pauses which ought to be made in speaking. 
A mechanical attention to these resting-places has perhaps 
been one cause of monotony, by leading the reader to a simi- 
lar tone at every stop, and a uniform cadence at every period. 
The primary use of points is, to assist the reader in dis- 
cerning the grammatical construction ; and it is only as a 
secondary object, that they regulate his pronunciation. 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not 
only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a 
proper tone of voice, by which the nature of these pauses is 
intimated : much more than by the length of them, which 
can seldom b? exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a 
slight and simple suspension of voice that is proper; some- 
times a degree of cadence in the voice is required ; and some- 
times that peculiar tone and cadence which denote the sen- 
tence to be finished. In all these cases, we are to regulate 
ourselves, by attending to the manner in which nature teach- 
es us to speak, when engaged in real and earnest discourse 
with others. 

It is a general rule, that the suspending pause should be 
used when the sense is incomplete ; and the closing pause, 
when it is finished. But there are phrases, in which, though 
the sense is not completed, the voice takes the closing, rather 
than the suspending pause ; and others, in which the sen- 
tence finishes by the pause of suspension. 

The dosing pause must not be confounded with that fall 
of the voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly 
finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety 
and energy than this habit. The tones and inflections of the 
voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, ac- 
cording to the general nature of the discourse, and the par- 
ticular construction and meaning of the sentence. In plain 
narrative, and especially in argumentation, a small attention 
to the manner in which we relate a fact, or maintain an argu- 
ment, in conversation, will show, that it is frequently more 
proper to raise the voice, thj a to let it fall, at the end of a 
feateacs. Some sentences a J so constructed, that the last 

56e 



Tones.) prosody. 181 

words require a stronger emphasis than any of the preceding ; 
while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle 
sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires 
the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, 
sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper. 
And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, ten- 
der, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often require 
a still greater cadence of the voice. The best method of cor- 
recting a uniform cadence, is frequently to read select senten- 
ces, in which the style is pointed, and in which antitheses are 
frequently introduced: and argumentative pieces, or such as 
abound with interrogatives, or earnest exclamation. 

Section 5. Of Tones. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; 
consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or va- 
riations of sound which we employ in the expression of our 
sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a de- 
gree oi tone or inflection of the voice ; but tones, peculiarly 
so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even 
the whole of a discourse. 

To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only ob- 
serve, that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a con- 
tinual state of activit)', emotion, or agitation, from the differ- 
ent effects which those ideas produce in the speaker. Now 
the end of such communication being, not merely to lay open 
the ideas, but also the different feelings which they excite in 
him who utters them, there must be other signs than words, 
to manifest those feelings ; as words uttered in a monoto- 
nous manner, can represent only a similar state of mind, per- 
fectly free from all activitj r or emotion. As the communica- 
tion of these internal feelings, was of much more consequence 
in our social intercourse, than the. mere conveyance of ideas, 
the Author of our being did not, as in that conveyance, leave 
the. invention of the language of emotion, to man; but im- 

Eressed it himself upon our nature in the same manner as he 
as done with regard to the rest of the animal world : all of 
which express their various feelings, by various tones. Ours 
indeed, from the superior rank that we hold, are in a high 
degree more comprehensive; as there is not an net of the 
mind, an exertion of the fancy, or an citation of the heart, 
which has not its peculiar tone, or note of the voice, by which 
it is to be expressed ; and which is suited exactly to the de- 
gree of internal feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of 
Q if 



182 English grammar. (Versification, 

these tones, that the life, spirit, beauty, and harmony of de- 
livery consist. 

An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over 
Saul and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has 
been said on this subject. '* The beauty of Israel is slain 
upon thy high places. How are the mighty fallen ! Tell it 
not in Gath ; publish it not in the streets of Askefon : lest the 
daughters of the Philistines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the 
uncircumcised triumph. Ye mountains of Giiboa, let there 
be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor fields of offerings; for there 
the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away ; the shield of 
Saul, as though he had not been anointed with oil !" The first 
of these divisions expresses sorrow and lamentation ; therefore 
the note is low. The next contains a spirited command, and 
should be pronounced much higher. The other sentence,, in 
which he makes a pathetic address to the mountains where 
his friends were slain, must be expressed in a note quite dif- 
ferent from the two former ; not so low as the first, nor so high 
as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet plaintive tone.* 

This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not 
so difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to imagine. 
If we enter into the spirit of the author's sentiments, as well 
as into the meaning of his words, we shall not fail to deliver 
the words in properly varied tones. For there are few peo- 
ple, who speak English without a provincial tone, that have 
not an accurate use of emphasis, pauses, and tones, when 
they utter their sentiments in earnest discourse : and the rea- 
son that they have not the same use of them, in reading aloud 
the sentiments of others, may be traced to the very defect- 
ive and erroneous method, in which the art of reading is 
taught ; whereby all the various, natural, expressive tones of 
speech, are suppressed, and a few artificial, unmeaning, read- 
ing notes, are substituted for them. 

But when we recommend to readers an attention to the 
tone and language of emotions, we must be understood to 
do it with proper limitation. Moderation is necessary in this 
point, as it is in other things. For when reading becomes 
strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, and must be 
highly improper, as well as give offence to the hearers ; be- 
cause it is inconsistent with that delicacy and modesty, which, 
on all occasions, are indispensable. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF VERSIFICATION. 

As there are few persons who do not sometimes read po- 

* hcrries. 

V 



Versification.) fkosody. 183 

etica! composition, it seems necessary to give the student 
some idea of that part of grammar, which explains the prin- 
ciples of versification ; that, in reading poetry, he may be the 
better able to judge of its correctnes, and relish its beauties. 
When this lively mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment, 
is perfectly chaste, it is often found to be highly interesting 
and instructive. 

Versification is the arrang ement of a certain number 
and variety of syllables, according- to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 
verse, to the last sound or syllable of another. 

Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. We 
shall consider these separately. 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. 
They are called fed, because it is by their aid that the 
voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a meas- 
ured pace ; and it is necessary that the syllables which mark 
this regular movement of the voice, should, in some manner, 
be distinguished from the others. This distinction was made 
among the ancient Romans, by dividing their syllables into 
long and short, and ascertaining their quantity by an exact 
proportion of time in sounding them ; the long being to the 
short, as two to one ; and the long syllables, being thus the 
more important, marked the movement. In English, sylla- 
bles are divided into accented and unaccented ; and the ac- 
cented syllables being as strongly distinguished from the un- 
accented, by the peculiar stress of the voice upon them,' are 
equally capable of marking the movement, and pointing out 
the regular paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by 
their quantity, among the Romans. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they 
are exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have 
the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this res- 
pect, we have all that the ancients had, and something which 
they had not. We have in fact duplicates of each foot, yet 
with such a difference, as to fit them for different purposes, 
to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; and 
it is upon the knowledge and rignt application of these pow- 
ers, that the pleasure and effect of numbers chiefly depend. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of *fwo, or of three 
syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syl- 
lables, and four of three, as follows : 



184 English grammar. (Versification* 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee-^ A Dactyl- J y 

An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u -o 

A Spondee — An Anapaest ^ <*» - 

A Pyrrhic w w A Tribrach <_, _ <-. . 

A Trochee lias the first syllable accented, and the last un- 
accented : as, "Hateful, pettish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented : as, " Betray, consist." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented : as, 
" The pale moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented: as, 
" on the tall tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter 
unaccented : as ; " Labourer, possible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented ; 
and the middle one accented : as, " Delightful, domestic." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and 
the last accented : as, " Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented : as, " Numera- 
ble, conquerable." 

Some of these feet may be denominated;>rtrtCi/?aZ feet; a» 
pieces of poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of 
them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl, and Ana- 
paest. The others may be termed secondary feet ; because 
their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve 
the verse. 

We shall first explain the nature of the principal feeU 

IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, ac- 
cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they are 
composed. 

1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
Iambus, with an additional short syllable: as, 

Disdaining, 

Complaining, 

Consenting, 

Repenting. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with 
in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with 
the Amphibrach. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be 
continued through any great number of lines. It consists af 
two Iambuses. 

What place Is here ! 
What scenes appear I 



Versification.) prosody. 135 

To me the rose 

No longer glows, 
ft sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short sylla- 
ble: as, 

Upon a mountain 

Beside a fountain. 
S. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 

Or famous or obscure, 

Where wholesome is the air, 

Or where the most impure. 
It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable: as, 

Our hearts no longer languish. 

4. The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5. The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of Jive Iam- 
buses. 

HowkWd, how vakS'd once, avails thee not, 
To whom related, or by whom begot : 
A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 
'Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 
Be wise to-day, 'tis madness to defer : 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead ; 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form it 
consists of five Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, 
as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, ^-c. it is capable of many va- 
rieties. Indeed, most of the English common measures may- 
be varied in the same way, as well as by the different posi- 
tion of their pauses. 

G. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the 
Alexandrine measure. It consists of sir Iambuses. 

Fdr thou art bat 6f dust ; be humble and be wise. 
The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme ; 
and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an 
agreeable variety. 

Th6 seas shall waste, thft skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away*; 
But fix'd his word, his saving pow'r remains : 
Thy rtalmfor ever lasts, thy own .Messiah rcigjis. 
7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is 
made up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord descended from above, 

And b^w'd th6 heaveus high. 

Q2 ° if 



186 English grammar. (Versification*. 

This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now bro- 
ken into two ; the first containing four feet, and the second 
three : 

When all thy mercies, O my God ! 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. 
In aU these measures, the accents are to be placed on even 
syllables ; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, 
more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 
TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists of 
one Trochee and a long syllable. 

Tumult cease, 

Sink to peace. 
This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used 
on serious occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of 
two feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for 
any very serious purpose. 

On the mountain 

By a fountain. 
It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an additional 
long syllable : as, 

In the days of old, 

Fables plainly told. 
S. The third species consists oUhi-ee trochees : as, 
When our hearts are mourning : 
or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable : as,. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 

Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; 

Bliss, a native of the sky T 

Never wanders. Morials, try ; 

There you cannot seek in vain ; 

For to seek her is to gain. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees: 
as, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 
This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows : 

Idle after dinner in his chair, 

Sat a former, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
But this measure is very uncommon. 

5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is 
composed of Jive trochees* 



-» 

Versification.) prosody. 187 

All that walk on foot or ride in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces, or garrets. 
6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of si* ' 
trochees: as, 

On a. mountain, stretch'd beneath a. hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 
This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our language 
admits. 

In all these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be placed 
on the odd syllables. 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon we 
shall give only one example of one species of it: 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 

Rise we to higher, ^-c. 
ANAPiESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1. The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single ana- 
paest: as, 

But in vain, 
They complain. 
This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the 
stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might 
make a trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form 
of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of two Aiv^aests : 
as, 

But his courage 'gan fail, 
For no arts could avail. 
This form admits of an additional short syllable. 
Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2. The second species consists of three Anapaests. 
t) ye woods, spread your branches apace ; 

To your deepest recesses I fly ; 
I would hide with the beasts of the chace ; 
1 would vanish from every eye. 
This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in 
solemn and cheerful subjects. * 

3. The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of/bur 
Anapaests. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway : 

And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 

This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end: as, 

On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are blending. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, 

in their more simple forms. They are capable of numerous 

7f 



188 English grammar. (Versification, 

variations, by the intermixture of those feet with each other ; 
and by the admission of the secondary feet. 

We have observed, that English verse is composed of feet 
formed by accent ; and that when the accent falls on vowels, 
the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity. That 
the student may clearly perceive this difference, we shall 
produce a specimen of each kind. 

O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the tately hind. 

Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second 
syllable. In the following line, we shall find the same Iam- 
bic movement, but formed by accent on consonants, except 
the last syllable. 

Then rustling, crackling, crashing thunder down. 

Here the time of the short accented syllables, is compen- 
sated by a short pause, at the end of each word to which 
they belong. 

We now proceed to show the manner in which poetry is 
varied and improved, by the admission of secondary feet in- 
to its composition. 

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 
The first foot here is a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. 

O'er many a. frozen, many a fiery Alp. 
Thisjine contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. 

Innumerable before th' Almighty's throne. 
Here, in the^ second foot, we find a Tribrach. 

See the bold youth strain up the threat'ning steep. 

In this line, the "first foot is a Trochee ; the second a genu- 
ine Spondee by quantity ; the third a Spondee by accent. 

In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the second 
a Spondee. 

That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

From the preceding view of English versification, we may 
see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we 
are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in 
our heroic measure, but we have, as before observed, dupli- 
cates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in 
measure* and which make different impressions on the ear ; 
an opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be 
the source of a boundless variety. 

OF POETICAL PAUSES. 

There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and one for 

* Movement and measure are thus distinguished. Movement expresses the 
progressive order of sounds, whether from strong- to weak, from long to short, 
or vice versa. Measure signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds and 
pauses. 



Versification.) prosody. 189 

melody, perfectly distinct from each other. The former 
mav be called sentential, the latter harmonic pauses. 

"flie sentential pauses are those which are known to us by 
the name of stops, and which have names given them, as the 
comma, semicolon, colon, and period. 

The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the final 
pause, and the cazsural pause. These sometimes coincide 
with the sentential pause, sometimes have an independent 
state, that is, exist where there is no stop in the sense. 

The final cause takes place at the end of the line, closes 
the verse, and marks the measure : the ceesural divides it 
into equal or unequal parts. 

The final pause preserves the melody, without interfering 
with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the 
bound of the metre ; and being made only by a suspension 
of the voice, not by any change of note, it can never affect 
the sense. This is not the only advantage gained to num- 
bers, by this final pause or stop of suspension. It also pre- 
vents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of 
lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a 
delicate ear. For as this final pause has no peculiar note of 
its own, but always takes that which belongs to the prece- 
ding word, it changes continually with the matter, and is as 
various as the sense. 

It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, 
marks the difference between prose and verse ; which will 
be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical 
lines. 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbid- 
den tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, 
and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man restore 
us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly muse !" 

A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this 
was verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By prop- 
erly adjusting the final pause, we shall restore the passage to 
its true state of verse. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse ! 

These examples show the necessity of reading blank verse, 
in such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear ; 
for, what is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet 

9f 



190 English grammar. (Versification. 

composed in verse, if in reading his lines, we suppress -his 
numbers, by omitting the final pause ; and degrade them, by 
our pronunciation, into mere prose ? 

The Caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syl- 
lable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot : 
as, 

The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 
On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot : 
as, 

Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind. 
On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot: as, 
Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 
Could' make a gentle belle" reject a lord. 
A line may be divided into three portions, by two caesuras : 
as, 

Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft" 
Look'd up to heav'n. 
There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the 
nature of the couplet, by introducing semi-pauses which di- 
vide the line, into four pauses. This semi-pause may be 
called a dtmi-ccesura. 

The following lines admit of, and exemplify it. 
Glows' while he reads" but trembles' as he writes. 
Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. 
Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. 

OF MELODY, HARMONY, AND EXPRESSION. 

Having shown the general nature of feet and pauses, the 
constituent parts of verse, we shall now point out, more par- 
ticularly, their use and importance. 

Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great ob- 
jects of poetic numbers. By melody, is meant, a pleasing 
effect produced on the ear, from an apt arrangement of the 
constituent parts of verse, according to the laws of measure 
and movement. By harmony, an effect produced by an ac- 
tion of the mind, in comparing the different members of a 
verse with each other, and perceiving a due and beautiful 
proportion between them. By expression, such a choice 
and arrangement of the constituent parts of verse, as serve to 
enforce and illustrate the thought or the sentiment. 

We shall consider each of these three objects in versifica- 
tion, both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 



Versification.) prosody. 191 

1st. With regard to melody. 

From the examples which we have given of verses com- 
posed in all the principal feet, it is evident that a considerable 
portion of melody is found in each of them, though in differ- 
ent degrees. Verses made up of pure Iambics have an ex- 
cellent melody. 

That the final and csesural pauses contribute to melody, 
cannot be doubted by any person who reviews the instances 
which we have already given of those pauses. To form 
lines of the first melody, the caesura must be at the end of 
the second, or of the third foot, or in the middle of the third. 

2d, With respect to harmony. 

Verses composed of Iambics have indeed a fine harmony ; 
but as the stress of the voice, in repeating such verses, is 
always in the same places, that is, on every second syllable, 
such a uniformity would disgust the ear in a long succession ; 
and therefore such changes were sought for, as might intro- 
duce the pleasure of variety, without prejudice to melody; 
or which might even contribute to its improvement. Of this 
nature was the introduction of the Trochee, to form the first 
foot of an heroic verse : as, 

Favours to none, to all she smiles Extends, 
O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. 

Each of these lines begins with a Trochee ; the remaining 
feet are in the Iambic movement. In the following line of the 
same movement, the fourth foot is a Trochee. 

All these our notions vain, sees and derides. 
The next change admitted for the sake of variety, without 
prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of Pyrrhics and 
Spondees ; in which, two impressions in the one foot make 
up for the want of one in the other ; and two long syllables 
compensate two short ones, so as to make the sum of the 
quantity of the two feet, equal to two Iambics. 
£)n the green bank t5 look into the clear 
Smooth lake that to me seem'd another sky. 
Stood rui'd stood vast Infinitude cdnfinM. 
The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. 

Which many a bard had chaunted many a day. 
In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphibrachs ; 
and three, Iambics. 

We have before shown that the ccesura improves the 
melody of verse ; and we shall now speak of its other more 
important office, that of being the chief source of harmony in 
numbers. 



192 English grammar. (Versification. 

The first and lowest perception of harmony, by means of 
the caesura, arises from comparing two members of the same 
Hne with each other, divided in the manner to he seen in the 
instances before mentioned ; because the beauty of propor- 
tion in the members, according to each of these divisions, is 
founded in nature ; being as one to two — two to three — or 
three to two. 

The next degree arises from comparing the members of 
a couplet, or two contiguous lines : as, 

See the bold youth" strain up the threatening steep, 
Rush thro' the thickets" down the valleys sweep. 
Here we find the caesura of the first line, at the end of the 
second foot; and in the middle of the third foot, in the last 
line. 

Hang o'er their coursers' heads" with eager speed, 
And earth rolls back" beneath the flying steed. 
In this couplet, the caesura is at the end of the third foot, 
in the first line ; and of the second in the latter line. 

The next perception of harmony arises from comparing a 
greater number of lines, and observing the relative propor- 
tion of the couplets to each other, in point of similarity and 
diversity, as : 

Thy forests Windsor" and thy green retreats, 
At once the monarch's" and the muse's seats, 
Invite my lays." Be present Sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs" and open all your shades. 
Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 
When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 
\ot half so swiftly" the fierce eagle moves, 
When through the clouds" he drives the trembling 
doves. 
In this way, the comparison of lines variously apportioned 
by the different seats of the three caesuras, may be the source 
of a great variety of harmony, consistent with the finest melo- 
dy. This is still increased by the introduction of two caesu- 
ras, and much more by that of semi-pauses. The semi- 
pauses double every where the terms of comparison ; give a 
more distinct view of the whole and the parts ; afford new 
proportions of measurement, and an ampler scope for diversi- 
ty and equality, those sources of beauty in harmony. 
Warms' in the sun" refreshes" in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars" and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided" operates' unspent 



Versification.) prosody. 193 

3d. The last object in versification regards expression. 

When men express their sentiments by words, they natur- 
ally fall into that sort of movement of the voice, which is 
consonant to that, produced by the emotion in the mind ; and 
the Dactylic or Anapsestic, the Trochaic, Iambic, or Spon- 
daic, prevails even in common discourse, according to the 
different nature of the sentiments expressed. To imitate na- 
ture, therefore, the poet, in arranging his words in the artifi- 
cial composition of verse, must take care to make the move-- 
ment correspond to the sentiment, by the proper use of the 
several kinds of feet : and this is the first and most general 
source of expression in numbers. 

That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, may 
be peculiarly expressive of particular operations and sen- 
timents, will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few select 
examples under each of those heads. 

In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan are 
shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, which 
detain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture. 
So stretch'd out huge in length the arch fiend lay. 

The next example affords instances of the power of a Tro- 
chee beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus. 

« and sheer within 

Lights on his feet : as when a prowling wolf 
Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold. 
The Trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the act 
of lighting: the Iambus that follows, fixes him — " Lights 6n 
his feet." 

The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes 
us see the wolf — "leap o'er the fence." — But as the mere act 
of leaping over the fence, is not the only circumstance to be 
attended to, but also the facility with which it is done, this is 
strongly marked, not only by the smooth foot which follows 
— "with ease" — itself very expressive, but likewise by a Pyrr- 
hic preceding the last foot — "Into the fold" — which indeed 
carries the wolf — " with ease into the fold.' 

The following instances show the effects produced by 
caesuras, so placed as to divide the line into very unequal por- 
tions : such as that after the first, and before the last semi- 
pede. 

thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day"' or the sweet approach of even or morn. 

Here the ca?sura after the first semipede Day, stops us un- 
it l* 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Punctuation. 

expectedly, and forcibly impresses the imagination with the 
greatness "of the authors loss, the loss of sight. 
No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but all 
The multitude of angels, with a shout 
Loud" as from numbers without number" sweet 

As from blest voices uttering joy. 

There is something very striking in this uncommon caesu- 
ra 5 which suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on the import- 
ance of a particular word. 

We shall close the subject, with an example containing the 
united powers of many of the principles which have been ex- 
plained. 

Dire wS.s the tossing" deep the groans" Despair"' 
Tended the sick" busiest from couch to couch" 
And over them triumphant death" his dart" 
Shook" but delay 'd to strike. 
Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody, are 
taken from " Sheridan's Artof Reading; ' to which book the 
Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more extensive 
information on the subject. 



PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi- 
tion into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or 
stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which 
the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause 5 the Semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, 
double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that 
of the colon. 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause, cannot be 
defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same 
composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time ; 
but the proportion between the pauses should be ever inva- 
riable. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper application 

* As punctuation is intended to aid both the sense, and the pronunciation of 
a sentence, it could not have been exclusively discussed under the part of Syn- 
tax, or Prosody. The nature of the subject, its extent and importance, and the 
grammatical knowledge which it presupposes, have induced us to make it a dis- 
tinct and subsequent article. 

14/ 



Comma.) punctuation. 195 

of the points, we must distinguish between an imperfect 
phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence. 

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not 
amount to a proposition or sentence : as, " Therefore ; in 
haste ; studious of praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, 
expressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves health." 

A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one 
finite verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists of 
two or more simple sentences connected together : as, " Good 
nature mends and beautifies all objects ;" "Virtue refines the 
affections, but vice debases them." 

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, 
may be accompanied with several adjuncts : as, the object, 
the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, and the 
like : and the subject or verb may be either immediately 
connected with them, or mediately ; that is, by being con- 
nected with something which is connected with some other, 
and so on : as, " The mind, unoccupied with useful knowl- 
edge, becomes a magazine oftrifles and follies." 

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and com- 
pound members. See page ^fyg^J^ /J ^ U ^ 1 
!R I. L_ _ ^. < 



CHAPTER I. 



of the comikj!?Jffj f $ Jf4 ^- 



The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, 
which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

Rule i. With respect to a simple sentence, the several 
words of which it consists have so near a relation to each 
other, that in general, no points are requisite, except a full 
stop at the end of it : as, "The fear of the Lord is the begin- 
ning of wisdom." "Every part of matter swarms with liv- 
ing creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the 
nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, 
may admit of a pause immediately before the verb: as, " The 
good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect 
the cultivation of the English language:" "To be totally in- 
different to praise or cens"ure, is a real defect in character." 

Rule ii. When the connexion of the different parts of a 
simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a 
comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at the 
end of tills phrase: as, "I remember, with gratitude, \UB 
goodness to me :" " His work is, in many respects, very im 

\bf 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Comma, 

perfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." But when 
these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma is 
better omitted : as, •* Flattery is certainly pernicious ;" 
"There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent 
occasion for commas. This will appear from the following 
rules ; some of which apply to simple, as well as to compound 
sentences. 

Rule hi. When two or more nouns occur in the same 
construction, they are parted by a comma : as, " Reason, 
virtue, answer one great aim:" " The husband, wife, and 
children, suffered extremely:"* "They took away their 
furniture, clothes, and stock in trade :" " He is alternately 
supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother." 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard 
to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction : as, " Vir- 
tue and vice form a strong contrast to each other :" " Liber- 
tines call religion bigotry or superstition ;" " There is a natu- 
ral difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, 
wisdom and folly." But if the parts connected are not short, 
a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expres- 
sed : as, " Romances may. be said to be miserable rhapso- 
dies^ or yianger-ous incentives to evil ;" "Intemperance de- 
stroys the strength of our bodies, and the vigour of our 
minds." 

Rule-iv. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same 
substantive are likewise separated by commas : as, " Plain, 
honest truth, wants no artificial covering ;" " David was a 
brave, wise, and pious man ;" " A woman, gentle, sensible, 
well-educated, and religious ;" " The most innocent pleas- 
ures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most affecting, 
and the most lasting." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunc- 
tion, are not separated by a comma : as, " True worth is 
modest and retired ;" " Truth is fair and artless, simple and 
sincere, uniform and consistent." " We must be wise or 
foolish ; there is no medium." 

Rule v. Two or more verbs, having the same nominative 
case, and immediately following one another, are also sepa- 
rated by commas : as, " Virtue supports in adversity, mod- 
erates in prosperity :" " In a letter, we may advise, exhort, 
comfort, request, and discuss." 

* As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary between the last 
noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But as no pause 
is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV. the com 
ma is there properly omitted. See WALKER'S Eltmtnts of Elocution. 

16f 



Comma.) punctuation. 197 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are 
an exception to the above rule: as, "The study of natural 
history expands and elevates the mind ;" " Whether we eat 
or drink, labour or sleep, we should be moderate." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, and 
exception : as, " A man, fearing, serving, and loving hi3 
Creator ;" " He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and 
respected ;" " By being admired and flattered, we are often 
corrupted." 

Rule vi. Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding 
one another, must be separated by commas: as, " We are 
fearfully, wonderfully framed ;" " Success generally depends 
on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we un- 
dertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they 
are not parted by the comma :' as, " Some men sin deliber- 
ately and presumptuously ;" " There is no middle state ; ws 
must live virtuously or vitiously." 

Rule vii. When participles are followed by something 
that depends on them, they are generally separated from the 
rest of the sentence by a comma : as, " The king, approving 
the plan, put it in execution ;" "His talents, formed for great 
enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous ;" 
"All mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye 
of one common Father." 

Rule viii. When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or 
sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening 
phrase has usually a comma at each extremity : as, "They 
set out early, and, before the close of the day, arrived at the 
destined place." 

Rule ix. Expressions in a direct address, are separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas : as, " My son, give 
me thy heart ;" " I am obliged to you, my friends, for your 
many favours." 

Rule x. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood abso- 
lute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence: 
as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;" "At 
length, their ministry performed, and race well run, they 
left the world in peace ; " To confess the truth, I was much 
in fault." 

Rule xi. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to 
other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illus- 
tration, when accompanied wfth adjuncts, are set off by 
commas : as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent 
for his zeal and knowledge ;" " The butterfly, child of the 
■ummer, flutters in the sun." 



198 English grammar. (Comma. 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, 
they are not divided : as, " Paul the apostle ;" " The em- 
peror Antoninus wrote an excellent book." 

Rule xii. Simple members of sentences connected by 
comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a com- 
ma: as, "As the hart panteth after the water brooks, so 
ioth my soul pant after thee ;" " Better is a dinner of herbs 
with love, than a stalled ox and hatred Avith it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the 
comma is, in general, better omitted : as, " How much better 
is it to get wisdom than gold !" " Mankind act oftener from 
caprice than reason." 

Rule xiii. When words are placed in opposition to each 
other, or with some marked variety, they require to be dis 
tinguished by a comma : as, 

" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage , without o'erflowing, full." 
u Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not 
only in union icith, but in opposition <o, the views and con- 
duct of one another." 

Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition 
agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it : as, 
"Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection 
q/"Rome." 

The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two 
or more nouns refer to the same preposition : as, "He was 
composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, of 
a cruel and lingering death ;" " He was not only the king, 
but the father oj 'his people." 

Rule xiv. A remarkable expression, or a short observa- 
tion, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be prop- 
erly marked with a comma : as, " It hurts a man's pride to 
say, I do not know ;" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of 
slaves." 

Rule xv. Relative pronouns are connective words, and 
generally admit a comma before them : as, " He preaches 
sublimefy, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life;" 
" There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the 
place of virtue." 

But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected 
by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent 
to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted : as, 
" Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;" " A 
man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most 
innocent words that can be put together." In the latter ex- 
ample, the assertion is not of "a man in general," but of "a 

13f 



Comma.) punctuation. 199 

man who is of a detracting spirit ;" and therefore they should 
not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the rela- 
tive is not expressed, but understood: as, "It was from piety, 
warm and unaffected, that his morals derived strength." 
" This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole 
conduct." In both of these examples, the relative and verb 
which was, are understood. 

Rule xvi. A simple member of a sentence, contained 
within another, or following another, must be distinguished 
by the comma : as, " To improve time whilst we are bles- 
sed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." "Very 
often, while we are complaining of the vanity, and the evils 
of human life, we make that vanity, and we increase those 
evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very 
closely connected, the comma is unnecessary : as, "Revela- 
tion tells us how we may attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing 
verb, with several words between them, those words should 
generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, " It ill be- 
comes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one an- 
other." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common de- 
pendence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by 
commas : as, " To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflict- 
ed, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are hu- 
mane and noble employments." 

Rule xvii. "When the verb Jo be is followed by a verb in 
the infinitive mood, which by transposition, might be made 
the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated 
from the latter verb, by a comma : as, " The most obvious 
remedy is, to withdraw' from all associations with bad men." 
"The first and mostpbvious remedy against the infection, is, 
to withdraw from all associations with bad men." 

Rule xviii. When adjuncts or circumstances are of im- 
portance, and often when the natural order of them is invert- 
ed, they may he set off by commas: as, " Virtue must be 
formed and supported] not by unfreouent acts, but by daily 
and repeated exertions." " vices, like shadows, towards 
the evening of life, grow great and monstrous. 

" Our interests are interwoven by threads innumerable ; 

11 By threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven." 

Rule xix. Where a verb is understood, a comma may 
oftea be properly introduced. This is a general rule which, 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Semicolon. 

besides comprising some of the preceding rules, will apply to 
many cases not determined by any of them : as, " From law 
arises security : from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
knowledge." " In this example, the verb " arises" is under- 
stood before "curiosity" and " knowledge ;" at which words 
a considerable pause is necessary. 

Rule xx. The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, 
formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary,, in 
the. next place, in sKort, and all other words and phrases of the 
same kind, must generally be separated from the context by 
a comma : as, " Remember thy best and first friend ; form- 
erly, the supporter of thy infancy, and the guide of thy child- 
hood : now, the guardian of thy youth, and the hope of thy 
coming years." " He feared want, hence, he over-valued 
riches." " This conduct may heal the difference, nay, it may 
constantly prevent any in future." " Finally, I shall only 
repeat what has been often justly said." " If the spring put 
forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in 
autumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled away without im- 
provement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age 
miserable." 

In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard 
must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion 
which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense 
of any passage, and to the clear, easy communication of it, 
will, it is presumed, with the aid of the preceding rules, ena- 
ble the student to adjust the proper pause, and the places for 
inserting the commas. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sen- 
tence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as 
those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little de- 
pendent on each other, as those which are distinguished 
by a colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
sense, but depends on the following clause : and sometimes 
when the sense of that member would be complete without 
the concluding one : as in the following instances : " As the 
desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, 
improves the amiable part of our species in every thing that 
is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them when it is 
governed by vanity and folly." 

20/ 



Colon.) PUNCTUATION. 201 

" Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly- 
affairs, is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin 
a long; retreat from them." 

" Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the 
bottom." 

" Philosophers assert, that Nature is unlimited in her op- 
erations ; that she hay inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we 
have not the least idea." 

CHAPTER III. 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two 01 
more parts, less connected than those which are separated 
by a semicolon ; but not so independent as separate dis 
tinct sentences. 

The Colon may be properly applied in the three follow 
ing cases. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but 
followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustra- 
tion of thesubject : as, "Nature felt her inability to extri- 
cate herself from the consequences of guilt: the* gospel re- 
veals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." "Nature 
confessed some atonement to be necessary : the gospel dis 
covers that the necessary atonement is made." 

2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting 
or concluding sentiment : as, " A divine legislator, uttering 
his voice from heaven ; an almighty governor, stretching 
forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of perpetual 
rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation 
and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations 
w hich overawe the world, which support integrity, and check 
guilt." 

3. The Colon is commonly used when an example, a quo- 
tation, or a speech is introduced : as, " The Scriptures give 
us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : 
■ God is love.' " " He Avas often heard to say : • I have done 
With the world, and 1 am willing to leave it.'"" 

The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes 
determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or not ex- 
pressed : as, "Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of 
perfect happiness ; there is no such tiling in the world." 
"Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- 
ness ; for there is no such thing in the world." 

Stf 



202 English grammar. (Period. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE PERIOD 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and 
not connected in construction with the following sen- 
tence, it is marked with a Period. 

Some sentences are independent of each other, both in 
their sense and construction : as, " Fear God. Honour the 
king. Have charity towards all men." Others are inde- 
pendent only in their grammatical construction : as, " The 
Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to promote 
our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. One 
light always shines upon us from above. One clear and di- 
rect path is always pointed out to man.'' 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two senten- 
ces, though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative 
conjunction. For the quality of the point does not always 
depend on the connective particle, but on the sense and 
structure of sentences : as, " Recreations, though they may 
be of an innocent kind, require steady government, to keep 
them within a due and limited province. But such as are of 
an irregular and vitious nature, are not to be governed, but to 
be banished from every well-regulated mind." 

" He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of 
the world, is of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. 
For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will nar- 
rowly inspect him in every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word : 
as, "M.S. P.S. N. B. A. D. O. S. N. S."^c. 

CHAPTER V. 

Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation, fyc. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and 
incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where 
the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause 
.s required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the 
sentiment: as, "If thou art he, so much respected once — 
but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" " If acting conforma- 
bly to the will of our Creator ; — if promoting the welfare of 
mankind around us ; — if securing our own happiness ; — are 
objects of the highest moment : — then we are loudly called 
upon, to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion 
and virtue." 

" Here lies the great False marble, where ? 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

22/ 



Interrogation.) punctuation. £03 

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, 
there are others, which denote a different modulation of voice, 
in correspondence to the sense. These are, 

The Interrogation point, ? 

The Exclamation point, ! 

The Parenthesis. ( ) 

INTERROGATION. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interroga- 
tive sentence; that is, when a question is asked : as, " Who 
will accompany me ?" " Shall we always be friends ?" 

Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, 
ought to be terminated by points of interrogation : as, "Who 
adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" " At 
whose command do the planets perform their constant revo- 
lutions ?" 

A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which 
are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of 
some other emotion. 

" How many instances have we of chastity and excellence 
in the fair sex !" 

" With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us in 
the choice of our companions !" 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases 
where it is only said a question has been asked, and where 
the words are not used as a question. " The Cyprians asked 
me, why I wept." To give this sentence the interrogative 
form, it should be expressed thus : " The Cyprians said to me, 
' Why dost thou weep ?' " 

EXCLAMATION. 

The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sud- 
den emotion, surprise, joy, grief, £,'C. and also to invocations 
or addresses: as, "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" 
"Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his benefits !" 
" Oh ! had we both our humble state maintain'd, 
And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !" 
" Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" 

It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an in- 
terrogative and exclamatory sentence; but a sentence, in 
which any wonder or admiration is expressed, nnd no answer 
cither expected or implied, may be always properly termina- 
ted by a note of exclamation: as, " How much vanity in the. 
pursuits of men !'' "Who can sufficiently express the goodness 
of our Creator!" " What is more amiable than virtue!" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indetermi- 
nate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that 



204 English grammar. (Parenthesis. 

respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may 
require. They mark an elevation or the voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclamation, 
appears from the following examples, in which the meaning 
is signified and discriminated solely by the points. 

" What condescension !" 

" What condescension ?" 

" How great was the sacrifice !" 

" How great was the sacrifice ?" 

PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary in- 
formation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a 
sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without in- 
juring the grammatical construction : as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 

Virtue alone is happiness below." 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
(What can exalt his bounty more ?) for thee." 

" To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five 
letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." 
" Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the 
law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as 
he liveth ?" 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with 
the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthet- 
ical characters. The following instances are therefore, im- 
proper uses of the parenthesis. " bpeak you (who saw) his 
wonders in the deep." " Every planet (as the Creator has 
made nothing in vain) is most probably inhabited." " He 
found them asleep again ; (for their eyes were heavy ;) nei- 
ther knew they what to answer him." 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, 
and may be accompanied with every point which the sense 
would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. 
It ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the 
member has, that precedes it ; and to contain that stop 
within the parenthetical marks. We must, however, except 
cases of interrogation and exclamation: as, "While they 
wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) they dis- 
dain dishonourable means," " it was represented by an 
analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which was borrowed from 
paganism." See the Octavo Grammar, on this subject. 

There are other characters, which are frequently mail* 

24f 



Apostrophe, fyc.) punctuation. 205 

use of in composition, and which may be explained in this 
place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or 
shorten a word : as, His for il is ; tho' for though ; e'en for 
even ; judg'd forjudged. Its chief use is to show the geni- 
tive case of nouns : as, " A man's property ; a woman's or- 
nament." 

A Caret, marked thus a is placed where some word hap- 
pens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the 
line. This mark is also called a circumflex, when placed 
over a particular vowel, to denote a long syllable: as, "Eu- 
phrates," 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting com- 
pounded words ; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, se.' r - 
love, to-morrow, mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part 
is written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part 
atthe beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the 
end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second. 

The Acute Accent, marked thus' : as, " Fancy." The 
Grave thus x : as, " Favour.''' 1 

In English, the Accentual marks are chiefly used in spel- 
ling-hooks and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which re- 
quire a particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscrimi- 
nately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some 
writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, 
and the acute on the latter, in this manner : " Minor min- 
eral, lively, livid, rival, river." 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this " : 
as, " Rosy :" and a short onethis " : as, "Fdfly." This last 
mark is called a breve. 

A Dia?resis. thus marked •*, consists of two points placed 
over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a 
diphthong, and parts them into two syllables : as, u Creator, 
coadjutor", aerial." 

A Section, marked thub §, is the division of a discourse, or 
chapter, into less part3 or portions. 

A Paragraph U denotes the beginning of a new subject, or 
a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This charac- 
ter is chiefly used in the Old, and in the New Testaments. 
. A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally 
placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is 
quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own 
words ; and two commas in their direct position, arc placed 
at the conclusion : as, 

S 25f 



206 English grammar. (Paragraphs. 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a word or sen- 
tence, which is to he explained in a note, or the explanation 
itself, or a word or a sentence which is intended to supply 
some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 

An Index or Hand fi^f 29 points out a remarkable passage, 
or something that requires particular attention. 

A Brace \ is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three 



lines, which have the same rhyme. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with 
one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repeti- 
tion in writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star*, directs the reader to some note 
in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or three 
asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a 
word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or some de- 
fect in the manuscript. 

An Ellipsis — is also used, when some letters in a word, 
or some words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The k — g," for 
" the king." 

An Obelisk, which is marked thusf, and Parallels thus ||, 
together with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are 
used as references to the margin, or bottom of the page. 

PARAGRAPHS. 

It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few gen- 
eral directions respecting the division of a composition into 
paragraphs. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very nu- 
merous in small compass, should be separated into para- 
graphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, 
the larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. And 
it will have a good effect to form the breaks, when it can 
properly be done, at sentiments of the most weight, or that 
call for peculiar attention. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, some- 
times naturally point out the separations into paragraphs : 
and each of these, when of great length, will again require 
subdivisions at their most distinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed 
into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhib- 
iting the connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and 
force to the division. See the Octavo Grammar. 

28/ 



PUNCTUATION. 207 

directions respecting the use of capital letters. 
It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a 
capital : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the 
writing or printing a crowded and confused appearance, it 
has been discontinued. It is, however, very proper to begin 
with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences 
are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or excla- 
mation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences, 
are thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of 
the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, ex- 
cept the first, may begin with a small letter : as, " How long, 
ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and the scorners de- 
f'ght in their scorning? and fools hate knowledge?" "Alas! 
how different ! yet how like the same !" 

0. The appellations of the Deity : as, " God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the 
Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
rivers, ships : as, " George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the 
Thames, the Seahorse." 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : as, 
" Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

G. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, 
or when it is in a direct form : as, "Always remember this 
ancient maxim: ' Know thyself.' " "Our great Lawgiver 
says, 'Take up thy cross dally, and follow me.' " But when 
a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capita] 
is unnecessary : as, " Solomon observes, ' that pride goes 
before destruction.' " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
with a capital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
books : as, " Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language ;*' 
"Thomson's Seasons;" "Rollin's Ancient History." 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, are written in 
capitals : as, " I write :" " Hear, O earth !" 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capi- 
tals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal 
subject of the composition. 

27/ 



(208) 



APPENDIX. 



CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTING 
YOUNG PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND AC- 
CURACY. TO BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED 
A COMPETENT KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PERSPICUITY 

IS the fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential in 
every kind of writing, that for the want of it nothing can 
atone. It is not to be considered as merely a sort of negative 
virtue, or freedom from defect. It has higher merit : it is a 
degree of positive beauty. We are pleased with an author, 
and consider him as deserving praise, who frees us from all 
fatigue of searching for his meaning ; who carries us through 
his subject without any embarrassment or confusion : whose 
st)ie flows always like a limpid stream, through which we 
see to the very bottom. 

The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression con- 
sists of two parts: and requires attention, first, to Single 
Words and Phrases ; and then, to the Construction of Sen- 
tences. 

PART I. 

O/Terspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, with 
respect to single Words and Phrases. 

These qualities of style, considered with regard to words 
and phrases, require the following properties : purity, pro- 
priety, and precision. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF PURITY. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such worr,s, and such 
constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language which 
we speak ; in opposition to words and phrases that are taken 
from other languages, or that are ungrammatical, obsolete, 

S8f 



Propriety.) perspicuity, 4*c 209 

new-coined, or used without proper authority. All such 
words and phrases as the following, should be avoided: 
Quoth he ; I ivist not ; erewhile ; behest ; selfsame ; delica- 
tesse, for delicacy ;politesse, for politeness ; hauteur, for haugh- 
tiness ; incumberment, connexity, martyrised, for encumbrance, 
connexion, martyred. 

Foieign and learned words, unless where necessity requires 
them, should never be admitted into our composition. Bar- 
ren languages may need such assistance, but ours is not one 
of these. A multitude of Latin words, in particular, have, 
of late, been poured in upon our language. On some occa- 
sions, they give an appearance of elevation and dignity to 
style ; but they often render it stiff and apparently forced. 
In general, a plain, native style, is more intelligible to all rea- 
ders ; aod, by a proper management of words, it can be made 
as strong and expressive as this Latinised English, or any 
foreign idioms. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language is the selection of such words as 
the best usage has appropriated to those ideas, which we in- 
tend to express by them ; in opposition to low expressions, 
and to words arid phrases which would be less significant olf 
the ideas that we mean to convey. Style may be pure, that 
is, it may be strictly English, without Scotticisms or Galli- 
cisms, or ungrammatical, irregular expressions of any kind, 
and may, nevertheless, be deficient in propriety : for the 
words may be ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, nor fully 
expressive of the author's sense. 

To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phra- 
ses, we must avoid low expressions ; supply ivords that are 
wanting; be careful not to use the same word indifferent 
senses ; avoid the injudicious use vf technical phrases, equivo- 
cal or ambiguous words, uni)itcfliirible expressions, and all 
such ivords and phrases as are not adapted to our meaning. 

1. Avoid low expressions: such as, " Topsy turvy, hurly 
burly, pellmell; having a month's mind for a thing ; curry- 
ing favour with a person ; dancing attendance on the 
great," fyc. 

"Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were 
forced to call in the Saxons for their defence. " The phrase 
"■left to shift for themselves" is rather a low phrase, and 
too much in the familiar style to be proper In * grave treatise. 

& Supply words that are wanting. " Arbitrary power 1 
a 2 ay 



£10 appendix. (Propriety 

look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much as a 
savage is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar:" it 
should have been, " as much as the state of a savage is hap- 
pier than that of a slave at the oar." " He has not treated 
this subject liberally, by the views of others as well as his 
own ;" " By adverting to the views of others," would have 
been better. "This generous action greatly increased his 
former services ;" it should have been, " greatly increased 
the merit of his former services." "By the pleasures of the 
imagination or fancy (which 1 shall use promiscuously) I 
here mean," $'c. This passage ought to have had the word 
" terms" supplied, which would have made it correct : 
" terms which I shall use promiscuously." 

It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles and 
prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted ; as in the 
following instances : " How immense the difference between 
the pious and profane!" "Death is the common lot of all ; 
of good men and bad." They should have had the article 
and preposition repeated: "How immense the difference 
between the pious and the profane !" " Death is the common 
lot of all ; q/*good men and q/*bad." 

The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, when 
we intend to point out the objects of which we speak, as dis- 
tinguished from each other, or in contrast ; and when we 
wish that the reader's attention should rest on that distinc- 
tion : as, " Our sight is at once the most delightful, and the 
most useful of all our senses." 

3. In the same sentence, he careful not to use the same word 
too frequently, nor in different senses. " One may have an 
air which proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowledge o. 
the matter before him, which may naturally produce some 
motions of his head and body, which might become the bench 
better than the bar." 

The pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a manner 
as to throw obscurity over the sentence. 

" Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason 
than this, that the manager, in countenance, favoured his 
friend." It should have been, " resembled his friend." 

" Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : it 
is by the virtue of charity that the .rich are blessed, and the 
poor supplied. In this sentence, the word "charity" is im- 
properly used in two different senses; for the highest ^-e 
nevolence, and for almsgiving. 

4. Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To inform 
those who do not understand sea-phrases, that "We tacked 
to the larboard, and stood off to sea," would be expressing 

30f 



Propriety-,} perspicuity, fyc. £11 

ourselves very obscurely. Technical phrases not being; in 
current use, but only the peculiar dialect of a particular class, 
we should never use them but when we know they will be 
understood. 

5. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The following 
sentences are exceptionable in this respect. "As for such 
animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy 
them." "I long since learned to like nothing but what you 
do." " He aimed at nothing less than the crown," may denote 
either, "Nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown," 
or " Nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy his ambition." 
" / will have mercy, and not sacrifice." The first part of this 
sentence denotes, " I will exercise mercy ;" whereas it is in 
this place employed to signify, " I require others to exercise 
it." The translation should therefore have been accommo- 
dated to these different meanings. "They were both much 
more ancient among the Persians, than Zoroaster or Zer- 
dusht." The or in this sentence is equivocal. It serves 
either as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a disjunc- 
tive of different things. If, therefore, the student should not 
know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, 
he will mistake the sense. " The rising tomb a lofty column 
bore :" " And thus the son the fervent sire addrest." Did 
the tomb bear the column, or the column the tomb ? Did 
the son address the sire, or the sire the son ? 

6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. 
" 1 have observed," says Steele, " that the superiority among 
these coffeehouse politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gal- 
lantry and fashion." This sentence, considered in itself, evi- 
dently conveys no meaning. First, it is not said whose opin- 
ion, their own, or that, of others: Secondly, it is not said what 
opinion, or of what sort, favourable or unfavourable, true or 
false, but in general, "an opinion of gallantry and fashion," 
which contains no definite expression of any meaning. With 
the joint assistance of the context, reflection, and conjecture, 
we shall perhaps conclude that the author intended to saj- ; 
"That the rank among these politicians was determined by 
the opinion generally entertained of the rank, in point of gal- 
lantry and fashion, that each oftheni had attained." 

"This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of hu- 
mility, " keeps our understanding ti^ht about us." ^Yhethcr 
the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it 
was, is not easy to determine. 

Sometimes a writer runs on in a specious verbosity, 
amusing his reader with synonymous terms and identical 

8if 



212 appendix. (Propriety 

propositions, well-turned periods, and high sounding words ; 
Dutat the same time, using those words so indefinitely, that 
the reader can either affix no meaning at all to them, or may- 
affix to them almost any meaning he pleases. 

" If it is asked," says a late writer, " whence arises the har- 
mony, or beauty of language ? what are the rules for obtain- 
ing it? the answer is obvious. Whatever renders a period 
sweet and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good ear i3 
the gift of nature ; it may be much improved, but not ac- 
quired by art. Whoever is possessed of it, will scarcely need 
dry critical precepts to enable him to judge of a true rhyth- 
mus, and melody of composition. Just numbers, accurate 
proportions, a musical symphony, magnificent figures, and 
that decorum which is the result of all these, are unison to 
the human mind." 

The following is a poetical example of the same nature, 
m which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it 
was composed by an eminent poet. 

From harmony, from heavenly harmony, 

This universal frame began : 

From harmony to harmony 
Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran, 
The diapason closing full in man. 

In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stamp, 
we must acceptor sound instead of sense; being assured, 
that if we meet with little that can inform the judgment, we 
shall at least find nothing that will offend the ear. And per- 
haps this is one reason that we pass over such smooth lan- 
guage, without suspecting that it contains little, or no mean- 
ing. In order to write or speak clearly and intelligibly, two 
things are especially requisite: one, that we have clear and 
distinct ideas of our subject ; and the other, that our words 
be approved signs of those ideas. That persons who think 
confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be 
wondered at ; for embarrassed, obscure, and feeble senten- 
ces, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, 
obscure, and feeble thought ; but that persons of judgment, 
who are accustomed to scrutinize their ideas, and the signifi- 
cation of their words, should sometimes write without any 
meaning, is, at first sight, matter of admiration. This, how- 
ever, when further considered, appears to be an effect derived 
from the same cause, indistinctness of conception, and inat- 
tention to the exact import of words. The occasions on 
which we are most apt to speak and write in this unintelligi- 
ble manner, are the three following. 



Propriety.) perspicuity, ^-c. 213 

Thefrst is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. 
Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally 
disposed to continue it too long;, and to pursue it too far. 

They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on the sev- 
eral properties of a metaphor which they have ushered into 
the discourse, without taking the trouble to examine wheth- 
er there are any qualities in the subject, to which these prop- 
erties can, with justice and perspicuity, be applied. The 
following instance of this sort of writing is from an author of 
considerable eminence. "Men must acquire a very peculiar 
and strong habit of turning their view inward, in order to ex- 

f)lore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hol- 
ow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and 
the wastes and wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and 
cultivated tracts of this obscure climate." A most wonderful 
way of telling us, that it is difficult to trace the operations of 
the mind. The author having determined to represent the 
human mind under the metaphor of a country, revolved in 
his thoughts the various objects which might be found in a 
country, without considering whether there are any things in 
the mind properly analogous to these. Hence the strange 
parade he makes with regions and recesses, hollow caverns and 
private seats, wastes ana! icildemcsses, fruitful and cultivated 
tracts ; words which, though they have a precise meaning, 
as applied to country, have no definite signification, as ap- 
plied to mind. 

The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligi- 
bly, is that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, de- 
note things which are of a complicated nature, and to which 
the mind is not sufficiently familiarised. Of these the instan- 
ces are numberless in every tongue ; such as Government, 
church, sjate, constitution, power, legislature, jurisdiction, fy-c. 

The third and principal occasion of unintelligible writing, 
is, when the terms employed are very abstract, and conse- 
quently of very extensive signification. Thus the word lion 
is more distinctly apprehended by the mind than the word 
beast, beast than animal, animalthnn being. 

The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our words 
and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not adapted to the 
ideas we mean to communicate ; or which are less significant 
than others, of those ideas, "lie feels any sorrow that can 
arrive at man ;" better " happen to man.'' " The con ''ience 
of approving one's self a benefactor, is the best recon^ se 
for being so;" it should have been "consciousness." "He 
firmly believed the divine precept, ' There is not a sparrow 
falls to the ground,' " &-c It should have been "doctrine." 

asr 



£14 appendix. (Propriety. 

" It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." A scene 
cannot be said to enter : an actor enters ; but a scene appears 
or presents itself. 

"We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, with- 
out inquiring into the causes of it:" it is proper to say, that 
we assent to the truth of a proposition ; but it cannot so well 
be said, that we assent to the beauty of an object. Acknowl- 
edge would have expressed the sense with propriety. 

" The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion of ex- 
tension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, ex- 
cept colours." Extension and shape can, with no propriety, 
be called ideas ; they are properties of matter. Neither "is 
it accurate, to speak of any sense giving us a notion of ideas : 
our senses give us the ideas themselves. The meaning of 
the sentence would have been proper, and much clearer, if 
the author had expressed himself thus: "The sense of feel- 
ing can, indeed, give us the idea of extension, figure, and all 
the other properties of matter, which are perceived by the 
eye, except colours." 

"The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although he 
has what is enough for nature," is much inferior to, "The 
covetous man never has enough ; although he has what is 
sufficient for nature." 

" A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees ; a 
general remarks all the motions of his enemy ;" better thus ; 
"A traveller remarks" 4*c; "A general observes,'' 1 fyc. "This 
measure enlarged his school, and obliged him to increase the 
buildings ;" it should be, " increased his school ;" and " en- 
large the buildings." 

" He applied a medicine before the poison had time to 
work :" better thus : " He applied an antidote" fyc. 

" The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out 
its bad qualities, on all who are within its reach ;" better, 
" throws out its malignant qualities." 

" I will go except I should be ill;" " I saw them all unless 
two or three :" corrected thus : " unless I should be ill ;" 
" except two or three." 

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly 
expressive of the ideas we design to communicate; or which 
are as particular and determinate in their signification, as is 
consistent with the nature and the scope of the discourse ; 
possesses great beauty, and cannot fail to produce a good 
effect. 

CHAP. III. 

OF PRECISION. 

Precision is the third requisite of perspicuity with res- 
ay 



Precision.) perspicuity, $t. £15 

Eect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching super- 
uities, and pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither 
more nor less than an exact copy of the person's idea who 
uses it. 

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three 
respects. 1st, They may not express the idea which the au- 
thor intends, but some other which only resembles it ; se- 
condly, They may express that idea, but not fully and com- 
pletely ; thirdly, They may express it, together with some- 
thing more than is intended. Precision stands opposed to 
these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Propriety implies 
a freedom from the two former faults. The words which 
are used may he proper ; that is, they may express the idea 
intended, and they may express it fully ; but to be precise, 
signifies that they express that idea and no more. 

The use and importance of precision may be deduced 
from the nature of the human mind. It never can view, 
clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a time. If it 
must look at two or three together, especially objects that 
have resemblance or connexion, it finds itself confused and 
embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what they agree, 
and in what they differ. Thus, were any object, suppose 
some animal, to be presented to my view, of wliose structure 
I wished to form a distinct notion, I should desire all its trap- 
pings to be taken off; I should require it to be brought before 
me by itself, and to stand alone, that there might be nothing 
to divide my attention. The same is the case with words. 
If, when any one would inform me of his meaning, he also 
tells me more than what conveys it: if he joins foreign cir- 
cumstances to the principal objects ; if, by unnecessarily va- 
rying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and makes 
me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another 
thing that is connected with it, he thereby obliges me to look 
on several objects at once, and 1 lose sight of the principal. 
He loads the 1 animal he is showing me, with so many trap- 
pings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view it ; or he brings 
so many of the same species before me, somewhat resembling, 
and yet somewhat differing, that I see none of them clearly. 
When an author tells me of his hero's courage in the day of 
battle, the expression is precise, and I understand it fully : 
but if, from the desire of multiplying words, he should prafse 
his courage and fortitude ; at the moment he joins these 
words together, my idea begins to waver. He means to ex- 
press one quality more strongly, but he is in truth expressing 
two : courage resists danger ; fortitude supports pain. The 
occasion of exerting each of thes^. qualities is different ; and 

35/ 



216 appendix. (Precision. 

being led to think of both together, when only one of them 
should be considered, my view is rendered unsteady, and my 
conception of the object indistinct. 

All subjects do not equally require precision. It is suffi- 
cient, on many occasions, that we have a general view of the 
meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the known and familiar 
kind, and we are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the 
author, though every word which he uses is not precise and 
exact. 

Many authors offend against this rule of precision. A con- 
siderable one, in describing a bad action, expresses himself 
thus: "It is to remove a good and orderly affection, and to 
introduce an ill or disorderly one ; to commit an action that 
is ill, immoral, and unjust ; to do ill, or to act in prejudice of 
integrity, good nature, and worth." 

A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought togeth- 
er by some authors, who, afraid of expressing themselves in 
a common and ordinary manner, and allured by an appear- 
ance of splendour, surround every thing which they mean to 
say with a certain copious loquacity. 

The great source of a loose style in opposition to precision, 
is the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous. 
They are called synonymous, because they agree in expres- 
sing one principal idea ; but, for the most part, if not always, 
they express it with some diversity in the circumstances. 

The following instances show a difference in the meaning 
of words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of at- 
tending, with care and strictness, to the exact import of 
words. ^ 

Custom, habit. — Custom, respects the action ; habit, the 
actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the 
same act ; by habit, the effect which that repetition produces 
on the mind or body. By the custom of walking often in the 
streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. 

Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity 
makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that 
a man is too proud to be vain. 

Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the 
hi^h opinion we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low 
opinion we have of others. 

Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the 
same kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other. 
An. only child, is one that has neither brother nor sister ; a 
child alone, is one who is left by itself. There is a difference, 
therefore, in precise language, between these two phrases: 

S6f 



Precision.) perspicuity, ^'c. 217 

"Virtue only makes us happy ;" and "Virtue alone makes 
us happy." 

Wisdom, prudence. — Wisdom leads us to speak and act 
what is most proper. Prudence, prevents our speaking or 
acting improperly. 

Entire-, complete. — A thing is entire, by wanting none of its 

Carts: complete, by wanting none of "the appendages that 
elong to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, 
and yet not have one. complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished, amazed, covfounded. — I am surprised 
with what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what 
is vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible ; 
1 am confounded by what is shocking or terrible. 

Tranquillity, peace, calm. — Tranquillity, respects a situa- 
tion free from trouble, considered in itself ; peace, the same, 
situation with respect to anj r causes that might interrupt it; 
calm, with regard to a disturbed situation going before or 
following it. A good man enjoys tranquillity, in himself; 
peace, with others ; and calm, 'after the storm." 

These are some of the numerous instances of words, in 
our language, whose significations approach, but are not 
precisely the same. The more the distinction in the mean- 
ing of such words is attended to, the more clear! y and forci- 
bly shall we speak or write. It may not, on all occasions, be 
necessary to pay a great deal of attention to very nice dis- 
tinctions; yet the foregoing instances show the utility of some 
general care to understand the distinct import of our words. 
While we are attending to precision, we must be on our 
guard, lest, from the desire of pruning too closely, we retrench 
all copiousness. Scarcely in any language are there two 
words that convey precisely the same idea; person thor- 
oughly conversant in the propriety of the language, will always 
be able to observe something that distinguishes them. As ihey 
are like different shades of the same colour, an accurate wri- 
ter can employ them to great advantage, by using them so 
as to heighten and complete the object which he presents to 
us. He supplies by one what was wanting in the other, to 
the strength, or to the. finishing, of the image which he 
means to exhibit. But, for this purpose, he musf. be atten- 
tive to the choice of his words, and not employ them care- 
lessly, merely for the sake of filling u;> a period, or of round- 
ing or diversifying his language, as if their signification were 
exactly the same, while in truth it is not. To unite copious- 
ness and precision, to he full and easy, and at the same time 
correct ami exact in the- choice of every word, is no doubt 
oueof the highest and most difficult attainments in writmg 
T \g 



118 appendix. (Clearness. 

PART II. 

OF PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITH 
RESPECT TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, nor 
very short : long ones require close attention to make us 
clearly perceive the connexion of the several parts ; and 
short ones are apt to break the sense, and weaken the con- 
nexion of thought. Yet occasionally they may both be used 
with force and propriety ; as may be seen in the following 
sentences. 

" If you look about you, and consider the lives of others 
as well as your own ; if you think how few are born with 
honour, and how many die without name or children ; how 
little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear of; how 
much poverty, and how many diseases there are in the world ; 
you will fall down upon your knees, and instead of repining 
at one affliction, will admire so many blessings whicn you 
have received from the Divine hand." This is a sentence 
composed of several members linked together, and hanging 
upon one another, so that the sense of the whole is not 
brought out till the close. The following is an example of 
one in which the sense is formed into short, independent 
propositions, each complete within itself. " I confess, it was 
w r ant of consideration that made me an author.- I wrote be- 
cause it amused me. 1 corrected, because it was as pleasant 
to me to correct as to write. I published, because 1 was told 
1 might please such as it was a credit to please." 

A tram of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and 
with the same number of members, should never be allowed 
to succeed one another. A long succession of either long or 
short sentences should also be avoided ; for the ear tires of 
either of them when too long continued. 

Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, 
and of periods variously constructed, not only the ear is grati- 
fied ; but animation and force are given to our style. 

We now proceed to consider the things most essential to 
an accurate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be the 
four following : 1. clearness. 2. UNVrr. S. strength. 4. a 

JUDICIOUS USE OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
CHAPTER I. 

OF THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE. 

Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and phrases 
separate!}' considered, have already been explained, and 
shown to be necessary to perspieuous and accurate writing. 



Clearness.) perspicuity, $*c. 219 

The just relation of sentences, and the parts of sentences, 
to one another, and the due arrangement of the whole, are 
the subjects which remain to be discussed. 

The first requisite of a perfect sentence is clearness. 

Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to 
the meaning, ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from 
two causes ; either from a wrong choice of words, or a wrong 
arrangement of them. The choice of words and phrases, as 
far as regards perspicuity, has been already considered. 
The disposition of them comes now under consideration. 

The first thing; to be studied here, is grammatical pro- 
priety. But as the grammar of our language is compara- 
tively not extensive, there may be an obscure, order of words, 
where there is no transgression of any grammatical rule. 
The relations of words, or members of a period, are, with us, 
ascertained only by the position in which they stand. 

Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that 
the words or members, most clearly related, should be placed 
in the sentence as near to each other as possible, so as to 
make their mutual relation clearly appear. It will be proper 
to produce some instances, in order to show the importance 
of this rule. 

1. In the position of adverbs. "The Romans understood 
liberty, at least, as well as we." These words are capable of 
two different senses, according as the emphasis, in reading 
them, is laid upon liberty, or upon at least. The words 
should have been thus arranged : "The Romans understood 
liberty as well, at least, as we." 

" Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or atheism." 
Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides 
being opposed to polytheism, or atheism ? This is what 
the words literally import, through the wrong placing of the 
adverb only. It should have been, " Theism can be opposed 
only to polytheism or atheism." 

" By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such 
pleasures as arise originally from sight." When it is said, 
" Imean only such pleasures ," it may be remarked, that the 
adverb only is not properly placed. It is not intended here 
to qualify the word mean, but such pleasures ; and therefore 
should have been placed in as close connexion as possible 
with the word which it limits or qualifies. The style be- 
comes more clear and neat, whin the words are arranged 
thus: "By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean such 
pleasures only as arise from sight." 

In the following sentence, the word more is not in its proper 
place. " There is not, perhaps, any real beauty or deformity 



£20 appendix. (Clearness. 

more in one piece of matter than another." The phrase 
ought to have stood thus : " Beauty or deformity in one 
piece of matter more than in another." 

2. In the position of circumstancts, and of particular mem 
bers. 

An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses 
himself: " Are these designs which any man, who is born a 
Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be 
ashamed or afraid to avow ?" Here we are left at a loss, 
whether these words, " in any circumstances, in any situa- 
tion," are connected with " a man born in Britian, in any 
circumstances or situation," or with that man's " avowing his 
designs in any circumstances or situation into which he may 
be brought." As it is probable that the latter was intended, 
the arrangement ought to have been conducted thus: "Are 
these designs which any man, who is born a Briton, ought to 
be ashamed or afraid, in any situation, in any circumstances, 
to avow ?" 

The following is another instance of a wrong arrangement 
of circumstances. " A great stone that I happened to find, 
after a long search, by the sea shore, served me for an an- 
chor." One would think that the search was confined to the 
sea shore ; but as the meaning is, that the great stone was 
found by the sea shore, the period ought to have run thus : 
" A great stone, that, after a long search, I happened to find 
by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." 

It is a rule, too, never to crowd many circumstances to- 
gether, but rather to intersperse them in different parts of the 
sentence, joined with the principal words on which they de- 
pend. For instance : " What I had the opportunity of men- 
tioning to my friend, some time ago, in conversation, was 
not a new thought." These two circumstances, "sometime 
ago," and "in conversation," which are here put together, 
would have had a better effect disjoined, thus : " What 1 had 
the opportunity, sometime, ago, of mentioning to my friend 
in conversation, was not a new thought." 

Here follows an example of the wrong arrangement of a 
member of a sentence. " The minister of state who grows 
less by his elevation, like a little statue placed on a mighty 
pedestal, will always have his jealousy strong about him." 
Here, so far as can be gathered from the arrangement, it is 
doubtful whether the object introduced, by way of simile, re- 
lates to what goes before, or to what follows. The ambiguity 
is removed by the following order. " The minister of state 
whc like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows 
less Vy his elevation, will always," fy-c. 

4ff 



Clearness.) perspicuity, tyc. 221 

Words expressing things connected in the thought, ought 
to be placed as near together as possible, even when their 
separation would convey no ambiguity. This will be seen in 
the following passages from Addison. "For the English are 
naturally fanciful, and very often disposed by that gloomi- 
ness and melancholy of temper which are so frequent in our 
nation, to many wild notions and extravagancies, to which 
others are not so liable." Here the verb or assertion is, by a 
pretty long circumstance, separated from the subject to 
which it refers. This might have been easily prevented, by 
placing the circumstance before the verb, thus : "For the 
English are naturally fanciful, and by that gloominess and 
melancholy of temper which are so Frequent in our nation, 
are often disposed to many wild notions, fyc. 

"For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissi- 
tude of things, knows to what use his works may, some time 
or other, be applied," Sfc. Better thus : " For as, in the or- 
dinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows 
to what use, some time or other, his works may be ap- 
plied," $-c. 

From these examples, the following observations will 
occur : that a circumstance ought never to be placed between 
two capital members of a period ; but either between the 
parts of the member to which it belongs, or in such a manner 
as will confine it to its proper member. "W hen the sense ad- 
mits it, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, generally 
speaking, the better, that the more important and significant 
words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered. 
The following sentence is, in this respect, faulty. " The 
Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute 
power in Hungary, that he exposed the empire doubly to 
desolation and ruin for the sake of it." Better thus: "That, 
fur the sake of it, he exposed the empire doubly to desola- 
tion and ruin." 

This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when 
different things have an obvious relation to each other, in 
respect to the- order of nature or time, that order should be 
regarded, in assigning them their places in the sentence ; un- 
less the scope of the passages require it to be varied. The 
conclusion of the following lines is inaccurate in this respect: 
" But still there will be such a mixture of delight, as is pro- 
portioned to the degree in which any one of these qualifica- 
tions is most conspicuous and prevailing." The order in 
which the two last word* are pbcnl, should have been re- 
versed, and made to stand, prevailing and co7ispicuous. — 
They are conspicuous because they prevail. 



£22 appendix. (Clearness. 

The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict con- 
formity to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with the 
largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the 
greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, without 
being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyments." This 
passage follows the order of nature. First, we have the va- 
riety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to the mind ; 
next, we Have the action of sight on those objects; and lastly, 
we have the time and continuance of its action. No order 
could be more natural or exact. 

The order which we now recommend, is, in single words 
especially, frequently violated for the sake of better sound ; 
but, perhaps in no instances, without a deviation from the 
line of strict propriety. 

3. In the disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which, 
what, whose, and of all those particles ivhich express the con- 
nexion of the parts of speech withone another. 

A small error in the position of these words may cloud the 
meaning of the whole sentence ; and even where the mean- 
ing is intelligible, we always find something awkward and 
disjointed in the structure of the sentence, when these rela- 
tives are out of their proper place. " This kind of wit," says 
an author, " was very much in vogue among our country- 
men, about an age or two ago : who did not practise it for 
any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being witty." 
We are at no loss about the meaning here ; but the con- 
struction would evidently be mended by disposing the cir- 
cumstance, "about an age or two ago," in such a manner as 
not to separate the relative tvho from its antecedent our 
countrymen ; in this way : " About an age or two ago, this 
kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, 
who did not practise it," ^'c. 

The following passage is still more censurable. " It is 
folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, 
by neaping up treasures, ivhich nothing can protect us against, 
but the good providence of our Creator." Which always 
refers grammatically to the substantive immediately prece- 
ding; and that, in the instance just mentioned, is " treasures." 
The sentence ought to have stood thus : " It is folly to pre- 
tend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the 
accidents of life, which nothing can protect us against," ^-c. 

With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, that 
obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of 
them, particularly of the pronouns who and they/ and them, 
and theirs, when we have occasion to refer to different per- 
sons ; as in the following sentence of Tillotson. " Men look 



Unity.) perspicuity, fyc 223 

with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think 
that their reputation obscures them, and their commendable 
qualities stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they 
canto cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their 
virtues may not obscure them" This is altogether careless 
writing. When we find these personal pronouns crowding 
too fast upon us, we have often no method left, but to throw 
the whole sentence into some other form, which may avoid 
those frequent references to persons who have before been 
mentioned. 

To have the relation of every word and member of a 
sentence marked in the most proper and distinct manner, not 
only gives clearness to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly 
and agreeably along all the parts of it. — See the Appendix to 
the Exercises. 

CHAPTER II. 

OF THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE. 

The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity. 

In every composition, there is always some connecting 
principal among the parts. Some one object must reign 
and be predominant. But most of all, in a single sentence, 
is required the strictest unity. For the very nature of a 
sentence implies that one proposition is expressed. It may 
consist of parts, indeed, but these parts must be so closely 
bound together, as to make the impression upon the mind of 
one object, not of many. To preserve this unity of a sen- 
tence, the following rules must be observed. 

In the first place, Daring the course of the sentence, the 
scene should be changed as little as possible. We should not 
be hurried by sudden transitions from person to person, nor 
from subject to subject. There is commonly, in every sen- 
tence, some person or thing which is the governing word. 
This should be continued so, if possible, from the beginning 
to the end of it. 

The following sentence varies from this rule : " After we 
came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was wel- 
comed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest 
kindness." In this sentence, though the objects contained 
in it have a sufficient connexion with each other, yet, by this 
manner of representing them, by shifting so often both the 
place and the person, we and they, and /and who, they ap- 
pear in so disunited a view, that the sense of connexion is 
much impaired. The sentence is restored to its proper unity, 
by turning it after the following manner. '* Having come to 

1ft 



224 appendix. (Unity 

an anchor, I was put on shore, where I was welcomed by all 
my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." 

Here follows another instance of departure from the rule. 
" The sultan being dangerously wounded, they carried him 
to his tent ; and, upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, 
they put him into a litter, which transported him to a place 
of safety, at the distance of about fifteen leagues." Better 
thus : u The sultan being dangerously wounded, was carried 
to his tent ; and, on hearing of the defeat of his troops, was 
put into a litter, and transported to a place of safety about 
fifteen leagues distant." 

A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to crowd 
into one sentence, things which have so little connexion, that 
they could bear to be divided into two or three sentences. 

The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and 
obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, 
than by one that is overloaded and embarrassed. Exam- 
ples abound in authors. "Archbishop Tillotson,' "ays an 
author, " died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved by 
king William and queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Tennison, 
bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Who would expect 
the latter part of this sentence to follow in consequence of 
the former ? " He was exceedingly beloved by both king 
and queen," is the proposition of the sentence. We look for 
some proof of this, or at least something related to it to 
follow ; when we are on a sudden carried off to a new propo- 
sition. 

The following sentence is still worse. The author, speak- 
ing of the Greeks under Alexander, says : " Their march 
was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabi- 
tants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean 
sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavoury, by reason of their 
continual feeding upon sea-fish." Here the scene is changed 
upon us again and again. The march of the Greeks, the de- 
scription of the inhabitants through whose country they trav- 
elled, the account of their sheep, and the cause of their sheep 
being ill-tasted food, form a jumble of objects, slightly rela- 
ted to each other, which the reader cannot, without much 
difficulty, comprehend under one view. 

These examples have been taken from sentences of no 
great length, yet very crowded. Writers who deal in long 
sentences, are very apt to be faulty in this article. Take, 
for an instance, the following from Temple. " The usual 
acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different things, 
and not only calls the followers or votaries of them by the 
ieveral names of busy nnd idle men ; but distinguishes th« 

H 



Unity.) perspicuity, ^-c. ££5 

faculties of the mind, that are conversant about them, calling 
the operations of the first, Wisdom ; and of the other, Wit ; 
which is a Saxon word, used to express what the Spaniards 
and Italians call Ingenio, and the French Esprit, both from 
the Latin, though t think wit more particularly signifies that 
of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic language." 
When the reader arrives at the end of this perplexed sen- 
tence, he is surprised to find himself at so great distance from 
the object with which he set out. 

Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great blemishes 
in composition. In writers of considerable correctness, we 
find a period sometimes running out so far, and comprehend- 
ing so many particulars, as to be more properly a discourse 
than a sentence. An author, speaking of the progress of our 
language after the time of Cromwell, runs on in this manner : 
"To this succeeded that licentiousness which entered "with 
the restoration, and, from infecting our religion and morals, 
fell to corrupt our language ; which last was not like to be 
much improved by those who at that time made up the court 
of king Charles the Second ; either such as had followed him 
in his banishment, or who had been altogether conversant in 
the dialect of these times, or young men who had been edu- 
cated in the same country : so that the court, which used to 
be the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was 
then, and I think has ever since continued, the worst school 
in England for that accomplishment ; and so will remain, till 
better care be taken in the education of our nobility, that they 
may set out into the world with some foundation of litera- 
ture, in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness." 

The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a loose 
dissertation upon several subjects. How many different 
facts, reasonings, and observations, are here presented to the 
mind at once ! and yet so linked together by the author, that 
they all make parts of a sentence, which admits of no greater 
division in pointing than a colon, between any of its members. 

It may be ofuse here to give a specimen of a long sentence, 
broken down into .several periods ; by which we shall more 
clearly perceive the disadvantages of long sentences, and how 
easily they may be amended. Here follows the sentence in 
its original form: "Though in yesterday's, paper we showed 
how every lhin£ that is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to af- 
fect the imagination with pleasure, we must own, that it is 
impossible for us to assign the necessary cause i>i' this pleas- 
ure, because we know neither the nature of an idea, nor the 
substance of a human soul : and therefore, for waot of such a 
light, all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to 



226 appendix. (Uni .y. 

reflect on those operations of the soul that are most agre»a- 
ble ; and to range, under their proper heads, what is pleasing 
or displeasing to the mind, without being able to trace out 
the several necessary and efficient causes, from whence the 
pleasure or displeasure arises." 

The following amendment, besides breaking down the 
period into several sentences, exhibits some other useful al- 
terations : " In yesterday's paper, we showed that every 
thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the 
imagination with pleasure. We must own, that it is impos- 
sible for us to assign the efficient cause of this pleasure, be- 
cause we know not the nature either of an idea, or of the 
human soul. All that we can do, therefore, in speculations 
of this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the soul which 
are most agreeable, and to range under proper heads what is 
pleasing or displeasing to the mind." 

A third rule for preserving the unity of sentences, is, to 
keep clear of all unnecessary parentheses. 

On some occasions, when the sense is not too long sus- 
pended by them, and when they are introduced in a proper 
place, they may add both to the vivacity and to the energy 
of the sentence. But for the most part their effect is ex- 
tremely bad. They are wheels within wheels ; sentences in 
the midst of sentences ; the perplexed method of disposing 
of some thought, which a writer wants judgment to intro- 
duce in its proper place. 

The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and proper; 
" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
" (What can exalt the bounty more ?) for thee." 
But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an im- 
propriety in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly reproach 
you for the wrong choice you have made, (as there is time for 
repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always 
honourable,) bethink yourselves that the evil is not irrepara- 
ble." It would be much better to express in a separate sen- 
tence, the thoughts contained in this parenthesis ; thus : " If 
your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you 
have made, bethink yourselves that the evil is not irrepara- 
ble. Still there is time for repentance and retreat ; and a re- 
turn to wisdom is always honourable." — See the Appendix 
to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER III. 

OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 

The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength. 
By this is meant such a disposition and management of the 

10g 



Strength.) perspicuity, fyc. 227 

several words and members, as shall bring out the sense to 
the best advantage, and give every word and every member, 
its due weight and force. 

A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all its 
parts, or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some circum- 
stance in the structure, it may fail in that strength of impres- 
sion, which a better management would have produced. 

The frst rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, 
to prune it of all redundant words and members. 

It is a general maxim, that any words which do not add 
some importance to the meaningof a sentence, always injure 
it. Care should therefore be exercised with respect to sy- 
nonymous words, expletives, circumlocutions, tautologies, 
and the expressions of unnecessary circumstances. The at- 
tention becomes remiss, when words are multiplied without 
a correspondent multiplication of ideas. " Content with 
deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of it ;" is bette" 
language than to say, " Being content with deserving it," $-c. 

" In the Attic commonwealth," says an author, " it was 
the privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail 
aloud and in public." Better simply thus : " In the Attic 
commonwealth, it was the privilege 'of every citizen to rail 
in public." 

Another expresses himself thus. " They returned back 
again to the same city from whence they came forth ;" in- 
stead of, "They returned to the city whence they came." 
The five words, back, again, same, from, and forth, are mere 
expletives, that have neither use nor beauty, and are there- 
fore to be regarded as encumbrances. 

The word but is often improperly used with that: as, 
" There can be no doubt bu$ that he seriously means what 
he says." It is not only useless, but cumbersome : " There 
can be no doubt that he seriously means what he says." By 
transposing the parts of the sentence, we shall immediately 
perceive the propriety of omitting this word : " That he 
seriously means what ne says, there can be no doubt." 

" I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, that 
nothing can possibly be more incurably and emphatically 
destructive, or more decisively fatal, to a kingdom, than the 
introduction of thoughtless dissipation, and the pomp of lazy 
luxury." Would not the full import of this noisy sentence 
be better expressed thus : " I am of opinion, that nothing is 
more ruinous to a kingdom, than luxury and dissipation/' 

Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing thei 
ideas, A considerable one, for so very simple a thing as 



228 appendix. (Strength. 

man's wounding himself, says, 'J To mangle, or wound, his 
outward form and constitution, his natural limbs or body." 

But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar 
force ; as in the following sentence : " Shall not the judge of 
all the earth do right ?" 

In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tautology 
appear. 

" So it is, that I must he forced to get home, partly by 
stealth, and partly by force." 

" Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal 
love and esteem of all men." 

The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary 
circumstances. " On receiving this information, he arose, 
went out, saddled his horse, mounted him, and rode to town." 
All is implied in saying, " On receiving this information, he 
rode to town." 

This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly 
characteristic of the simple style of remote ages, that, in 
books of the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not 
at all ungraceful. Of this kind are the following scriptural 
phrases. "He lifted up his voice, and wept." "He opened 
his mouth, and said." It is true, that, in strictness, they are 
not necessary to the narration, but they are of some impor- 
tance to the composition, as bearing the venerable signature 
of ancient simplicity. It may, on this occasion, be further 
observed, that the language of the present translation of the 
Bible, ought not to be viewed in an exceptionable light, 
though some parts of it may appear to be obsolete. From 
universal admission, this language has become so familiar and 
intelligible, that in all transcripts and allusions, except where 
the sense is evidently injured, it ought to be carefully preserv- 
ed. And it may also be justly. remarked, that, on religious 
subjects, a frequent recurrence 6f scripture-language is at- 
tended with peculiar force and propriety. 

Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to contract 
a roundabout method of expression, and to lop off excres- 
cences, yet we should avoid the extreme of pruning too 
closely : some leaves should be left to shelter and surround 
the fruit. Even synonymous expressions may, on some oc- 
casions, be used with propriety. One is, when an obscurer 
term, which we cannot well avoid employing, needs to be 
explained by one that is clearer. The other is, when the 
language of the emotions is exhibited. Emotion natu- 
rally dwells on its object : and when the reader also feels in- 
terested, repetition and synonymy have frequently an agreea- 
ble effect 

I2g 



Strength.) perspicuity, tyc. £29 

The following passage, taken from Addison, who delighted 
in a full and flowing style, may, hy some persons, be deemed 
not very exceptionable. " But there is nothing that makes 
its way more directly to the soul than beauty, which imme- 
diately diffuses a secret satisfaction and complacency through 
the imagination, and gives a finishing to any thing that is 
great or uncommon. The very first discovery of it strikes 
the mind with inward joy, and spreads a cheerfulness and 
delight through all its faculties." Some degree of verbosity 
may be discovered in these sentences, as phrases are repeat- 
ed which seem little more than the echo of one another ; 
such as — diffusing; satisfaction and complacency through the 
imagination — striking the mind with inward joy — spreading 
cheerfulness and delight through all its faculties. But, per- 
haps, some redundancy is more allowable on such lively 
subjects, than it would be on other occasions. 

After removing superfluities, the second rule for promo- 
ting the strength of a sentence, is, to attend particularly to the 
use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for 
transition and connexion. 

These little words, but, and, or, which, whose, where, then, 
therefore, because, fyc. are frequently the most important 
words of any; they are the joints or hinges upon which all 
sentences turn ; and, of course, much of their strength must 
depend upon such particles. The varieties in using them are, 
indeed, so many, that no particular system of rules respect- 
ing them can be'given. Some observations, tending to illus- 
trate the rule, may, however, be mentioned. 

What is called splitting particles, or separating a preposi- 
tion from the noun which it governs, is to be avoided. As if 
I should say, "Though virtue borrows no assistance from, 
yet it mav often be accompanied by, the advantages of for- 
tune." Here we are put to a stand in thought, being obliged 
to rest a little on the preposition by itself, which, at the same 
time, carries no signihcancy, till it is joined to its proper sub- 
stantive. 

Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and rela- 
tive particles, by the frequent use of such phraseology as 
this: "There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the 
empty pomp of language." in introducing a subject, or lay- 
ing down a proposition, to which we demand particular at- 
tention, this sort of style is very proper; but, on common 
occasions, it is better to express ourselves more simply and 
briefly : "Nothing disgusts us suonerthan the empty pomp 
of language." 

Other writers make a practice of omitting the relative, 
u i3e 



230 appendix. (Strength. 

■where they think the meaning can be understood without it: 
as, " The man I love;" " The dominions we possessed, and 
the conquests we made." But though this elliptical style is 
intelligible, and is allowable in conversation and epistolary 
■writing, yet in all writings of a serious and dignified kind, it 
ought to be avoided. There, the relative should always be 
inserted in its proper place, and the construction filled up. 
" The man whom 1 love." " The dominions which we pos- 
sessed, and the conquests which we made." 

With regard to the copulative particle and, which occurs 
so frequently in all kinds of composition, several observations 
are to be made. First, it is evident, that the unnecessary 
repetition of it enfeebles style. The following sentence from 
Sir William Temple, will serve for an instance. He is speak- 
ing of the refinement of the French language . " The acade- 
my, set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that 
age and country, and divert them from raking into his poli- 
tics and ministry, brought this into vogue; and the French 
■wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the re- 
finement of their style and language ; and, indeed, with such 
success, that it can hardly be equalled, and runs equally 
through their verse and, their prose." Here are no fewer 
than eight ands in one sentence. Some writers often make 
their sentences drag in this manner, by a careless multiplica- 
tion of copulatives. 

But, in the next pi ice, it is worthy of observation, that 
though the natural use of the conjunction and, is to join ob- 
jects together, yet, in fact, by dropping the conjunction, we 
often mark a closer connexion, a quicker succession of ob- 
jects, than when it is inserted between them. "I came, 1 
saw, 1 conquered," expresses with more force the rapidity 
and quick succession of conquest, than if connecting particles 
had been used. 

On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick 
transition from one object to another, when we are making 
some enumeration, in which w r e wish that the objects should 
appear as distinct from each other as possible, and that the 
mind should rest, for a moment, on each object by itself, 
copulatives may be multiplied with peculiar advantage. As 
when an author says, " Such a man might fall a victim to 
power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with 
him." Observe, in the following enumeration made by the 
Apostle Paul, what additional weight and distinctness are 
given to each particular, by the repetition of a conjunction : 
" I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor 
principalities, nor powers, nor tnings present, nor things to 

14* 



Strength.) perspicuity, fye. 231 

come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be 
able to separate us from the love of God." 

The words designed to mark the transition from one sen- 
tence to another, and the connexion between sentences, are 
sometimes very incorrect, and perform their office in an im- 
perfect and obscure manner. The following is an example 
of this kind of inaccuracy. " By greatness, I do not mean 
the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a 
whole view. Such are the prospects of an open champaign 
country, a vast uncultivated desert," fy-c. The word such 
signifies of that nature or quality, which necessarily presup- 

Eoses some adjective or word descriptive of a quality going 
efore, to which it refers. But, in the foregoing sentence, 
there is no such adjective. The author had spoken of great- 
ness in the abstract only ; and, therefore, such has no distinct 
antecedent to which we can refer it. The sentence would 
have been introduced with more propriety, by saying, To 
this class belong, or under this head are ranged, the pros- 
pects, fy-e. 

As connective particles are the hinges, tacks, and pins, by 
which the words in the same clause, the clauses in the same 
member, the members in the same sentence, and even the 
sentences in the same discourse, are united together, and 
their relations suggested, so they should not be either too 
frequently repeated, awkwardly exposed to view, or made up 
of polysyllables, when shorter words would as well convey the 
meaning. JYotwithstanding that, insomuch that, forasmuch 
as, furthermore, fyc. are tedious words, which tend to over- 
load and perplex a sentence. 

We shall conclude this head with two remarks on the sub- 
ject of inserting or omitting the conjunctions. The first is, 
that the illative conjunctions, the causal, and the disjunctive, 
when they suit the sense, can more rarely be dispensed with 
than the copulative. The second is, that the omission of 
copulatives always succeeds best, when the connexion of the 
thoughts is either very close, or very distant. It is mostly in 
the intermediate cases that the conjunction is deemed neces- 
sary. When the connexion in thought is very distant, the 
copulative appears absurd ; and when very close, superflu- 
ous. 

The third rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, 
to dispose of the capital icord, or words, so that they may make 
the greatest impression. 

That there are in every sentence, such capital words on 
which the meaning principally rests, every one mustsee; and 
that these words should possess a conspicuous and distinguish- 



£32 appendix. (Strength 

ed place, is equally plain. For the most part, with us, the 
important words are placed in the beginning of the sentence. 
So in the following passages : " Silver and gold have I none ; 
but such as I have, give I unto thee," $-c. " Your fathers, 
where are they ? and the prophets, do they live forever ?" 

Sometimes, however, when we intend to give weight, to a 
sentence, it is of advantage to suspend the meaning for a little, 
and then bring it out full at the close. "Thus," says an 
author, " on whatever side we contemplate this ancient wri- 
ter, what principally strikes us, is his wonderful invention." 

To accomplish this end, the placing of capital words in a 
conspicuous part of the sentence, the natural order of our 
language must sometimes be inverted. According to this 
natural order, the nominative has the first place, the verb the 
second, and the objective, if it be an active verb that is em- 
ployed, has the third. Circumstances follow the nomina- 
tive, the verb, or the objective, as they happen to belong to 
any of them. " Diana of the Ephesians is great," is the nat- 
ural order of the sentence. But its strength is increased by 
inversion, thus : " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." " I pro- 
fess, in the sincerity of my heart," ^*c. is the natural order of a 
circumstance. Inverted thus : " In the sincerity of my heart, 
I profess," fyc. 

Some authors greatly invert the natural order of senten- 
ces ; others write mostly in a natural style. Each method 
has its advantages. The inverted possesses strength, dignity, 
and variety : the other, more nature, ease, and simplicity. 
"We shall give an instance of each method, taken from writers 
of considerable eminence. The first is of the inverted order. 
The author is speaking of the misery of vice. " This, as to 
the complete immoral state, is what, of their own accord, 
men readily remark. Where there is this absolute degenera- 
cy, this total apostacy from all candour, truth, or equity, there 
are few who do not see and acknowledge the misery which 
is consequent. Seldom is the case misconstrued when at 
worst. The misfortune is, that we look not on this depravity, 
nor consider how it stands in less degrees. As if, to be abso- 
lutely immoral, were, indeed, the greatest misery ; but to be 
so in a little decree, should be no misery or harm at all. 
Which, to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that it is the 

§reatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maimed or 
_ istorted ; but that to lose the use only of one limb, or to be 
impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill worthy 
the least notice." Here is no violence done to the language, 
though there are many inversions. 

The following is an example of natural construction : 

16 ff 



Strength.) perspicuitf, ^'c. £S? 

" Our sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, of all 
our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, 
converses with its objects at the greatest distance, and con- 
tinues the longest in action, without being tired, or satiated 
with its proper enjoyments. The sense of feeling can, in- 
deed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other ideas 
that enter at the eye, except colours; but, at the same time, 
it is very much straitened and confined in its operations," ^c. 

But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever 
part of the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is 
always a point of consequence, that these capital words 
should stand clear and disentangled from any other words 
that would clog them. Thus, when there are any circum- 
stances of time, place, or other limitations, which the prin- 
cipal object of our sentence requires to have connected with 
it, we must take care to dispose of them, so as not to cloud 
that principal object, nor to bury it under a load of circum- 
stances. This will be made clearer by an example. " If, 
whilst they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and 
give instruction, they may now perhaps, as well as formerly, 
Be esteemed, with justice, the best and most honourable 
among authors." This is a well constructed sentence. It 
contains a great many circumstances and adverbs necessary 
to qualify the meaning ; only, secretly, as well, perhaps, now, 
with justice, formerly ; yet these are placed so properly, as 
neither to embarrass, nor weaken the sentence ; while that 
which is the capital object in it, viz. " being justly esteemed 
the best and most honourable among authors," comes out in 
the conclusion clear and detached, and possesses its proper 
place. See, now, what would have been the effect of a dif- 
ferent arrangement : M If, whilst they profess to please only, 
they advise and give instruction secretly, they may be es- 
teemed the best and most honourable among authors, with 
justice, perhaps, now as well as formerly." Here we have 
precisely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means 
of the circumstances being so intermingled as to clog the 
capital words, the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. 

The fourth rule for promoting the strength of sentences, is, 
that a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a 
stronger one; and that, when our sculmcc consists of two 
members, the longer should, generally, be the concluding one. 

Thus, to say," When our passions have forsaken us, we 

flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them,'* 

is both more easy and more clear, than to begin with the 

longer part of the proposition: "\Ve flatter ourselves with 

U2 n g 



S34 appendix. (Strength. 

the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have 
forsaken us." 

In genera], it is agreeable to find a sentence rising upon us, 
and growing in its importance, to the very last word, when 
this construction can be managed without affectation. " If 
we rise yet higher," says Addison, u and consider the fixed 
stars as so many oceans of flame, that are each of them at- 
tended with a different set of planets ; and still discover new 
firmaments and new lights that are sunk further in those un- 
fathomable, depths of ether ; we are lost in such a laby- 
rinth of suns and worlds, and confounded with the magnifi- 
cence and immensity of nature." 

Thejifth rule for the strength of sentences is, to avoid con- 
cluding them with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsid- 
erable, word. 

Agreeably to this rule, we should not conclude with any of 
the particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, it is a great 
deal better to say, "Avarice is a crime of which wise men are 
often guilty," than to say, "Avarice is a crime which wise 
men are often guilty of." This is a phraseology which all 
correct writers shun : and with reason. For as the mind 
cannot help resting a little, on the import of the word which 
closes the sentence, it must be disagreeable to be left pausing 
on a word, which does not, by itself, produce any idea. 

For the same reason, verbs which are used in a compound 
sense, with some of these prepositions, are, though not so 
bad, yet still not proper conclusions of a period: such as, 
bring about, lay hold of, come over to, clear up, and many 
other of this kind ; instead of which, if we can employ a 
simple verb, it always terminates the sentence with more 
strength. Even the pronoun it, should, if possible, be avoid- 
ed in the conclusion : especially when it is joined with some 
of the prepositions ; as ,ivith it, in it, to it. We shall be sen- 
sible of this in the following sentence. "There is not, in ray 
opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant consideration in 
religion, than this, of the perpetual progress which the soul 
makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever ar- 
riving at a period in it." How much more agreeable the 
sentence, if it had been so constructed as to close with the 
word period! 

Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which expres- 
ses a circumstance only, always appears badly in the rear of 
a sentence. We may judge of this by the following passage : 
" Let me therefore conclude by repeating, that division has 
caused all the mischief we lament; that union alone can re- 
trieve it • and that a great advance towards this union, was 

18* 



Strength.) perspicuity, 4*c 235 

the coalition of parties, so happily begun, so successfully- 
carried on, and of late so unaccountably neglected ; to say no 
worse." This last phrase, " to say no worse," occasions a 
falling off at the end. The proper disposition of such cir- 
cumstances in a sentence, requires attention, in order to ad- 
just them so as shall consist equally with the perspicuity 
"and the strength of the period. — Though necessary parts, 
they are, however, like irregular stones in a building, which 
try the skill of an artist, where to place them with the least 
offence. But it must be remembered, thatthe close is always 
an unsuitable place for them. Notwithstanding what has 
been said against concluding a period with an adverb, fyc. 
this must not be understood to refer to such words, when 
the stress and signiiicancy of the sentence rest chiefly upon 
them. In this case they are not to be considered as circum- 
stances, but as the principal objects : as in the following sen- 
tence. " In their prosperity, my friends shall never hear of 
me, in their adversity, always." Here, "never" and " always 11 
being emphatical words, were to be so placed as to make a 
strong impression. 

The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, is, that 
in the members of a sentence, ivhere two things are compared 
or contrasted with one another ; where either a resemblance or 
an opposition is intended to be expressed ; some resemblance, 
in the language and construction, should be preserved. For 
when the things themselves coirespondto each other, we natur- 
ally expect to find a similar correspondence in the wards. 

Thus, when it is said, "The wise man is happy when he 
gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he recommends 
himself to the applause of those about him ;" the opposition 
w r ould have been more regular, if it had been expressed thus : 
" The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; 
the fool, when he gains that of others." 

" A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy inflames 
his crimes." Better thus: "A friend exaggerates a man's 
virtues ; an enemy his crimes." 

The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Homer, 
fully exemplifies the rulejust given: "Homer was the greater 
genius ; Virgil, the better artist : in the one w r e most admire 
the man ; in the other the work. Homer hurries us with a 
commanding impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with an attractive 
majesty. Homer scatters with a generous profusion ; Vir- 
gil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the 
Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, 
like a river in its banks, with a constant stream." — Periods 
thus constructed, when introduced with propriety, and not 

19g 



£36 appendix. (Strength, 

returning too often, have a sensible beauty. But we must 
beware of carrying our attention to this beauty too far. It 
ought only to be^ occasionally studied, when comparison or 
opposition of objects naturally leads us to it. If such a con- 
struction as this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it leads to a 
disagreeable uniformity ; produces a regularly returning 
clink in the period, which tires the. ear ; and plainly discov- 
ers affectation. 

The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect of 
sentences, is, to attend to the sound, the harmony and easy 
flow, of the words and members. 

Sound is a quality much inferior to sense ; yet such as 
must not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds are the 
vehicle or conveyance for our ideas, there will be a very 
considerable connexion between the idea which is conveyed, 
and the nature of the sound which conveys it. — Pleasing 
ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly be transmitted to 
the mind, by means of harsh and disagreeable sounds. The 
mind revolts at such sounds, and the impression of the sen- 
timent must consequently be weakened. The observations 
which we have to make on this subject, respect the choice of 
words; their arrangement; the order and disposition of the 
members ; and the cadence or close of sentences. 

We begin with the choice of words. It is evident, that 
•Fords are most agreeable to the ear, when they are compo- 
sed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there, is a proper 
intermixture of vowels and consonants; without too many 
harsh consonants rubbing against each other ; or too many 
open vowels in succession, to cause a hiatus, or disagreea- 
ble aperture of the mouth. 

It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever 
sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same propor- 
tion, harsh and painful to the ear. Vowels give softness ; 
consonants, strength to the sound of words. The melody of 
language requires a just proportion of each ; and the con- 
struction will be hurt, will be rendered either grating or ef- 
feminate, by an excess of either. Long words are common- 
ly more agreeable to the ear than monosyllables. They 
please it by the composition or succession of sounds which 
they present to it; and accordingly, the most harmonious 
languages abound most in them. Among words of any 
length, those are the most melodious, which do not run 
wholly either upon long or short syllables, but are composed 
of an intermixture of them : such as, repent, profess, powerful, 
velocity, celerity, independent, impetuosity. 

If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we must avoid 

20? 



Strength.) perspicuity, ^c 237 

the use of such words as the following; 1. Such as are com- 
posed of words already compounded, the several parts of 
which are not easily, and therefore not closely united : as, 
" Unsuccessfulness, wronpheadedness, tenderheartedness :" 
2. Such as have the syllables which immediately follow the 
accented syllable, crowded with consonants that do not easily 
coalesce : as, " Questionless, chroniclers, conventiclers :" 3. 
Such as have too man5 r syllables following the accented syl- 
lable : as, "Primarily, cursorily, summarily, perem'pioriness ;" 
4. Such as have a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or 
folloAved by another short or unaccented syllable very much 
resembling : as, " Holily, sillily, lowlily, farriei-y" A little 
harshness, by the collision of consonants, which nevertheless 
our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and which do not 
suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea either of precipita- 
tion or of stammering, is by no means a sufficient reason for 
suppressing a useful term. The words hedg'd.jledg'd, ivedg'd, 
drudged, grudg'd, adjudged, which some nave thought very 
offensive, are not exposed to the objections which lie against 
the words above mentioned. We should not do well to in- 
troduce such hard and strong sounds too frequently ; but 
when they are used sparingly and properly, they have even a 
good effect. They contribute to that variety in sound which 
is advantageous to language. 

The next head, respecting the harmony which results from 
a proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater nicety. 
For let the words themselves be ever so well chosen, and 
well sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, the melody of the 
sentence is utterly lost, or greatly impaired. That this is the 
case, the learners will perceive by the following examples. 
" Pleasures simple and moderate always are the best:" it 
would be better to say, " Simple and moderate pleasures are 
always the best." "Office or rank may be the recompense 
of intrigue, versatility, or flattery ;" better thus, " Kank 
or office may be the recompense of flattery, versatility, 
or intrigue." " A great recommendation of the guidance 
offered by integrity to us, is, that it is by all men easily under- 
stood:" better in this form ; "It is a great recommenda- 
tion of the guidance offered to us by integrity, that it is easily 
understood by all men." In the following examples, the 
words are neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce 
the most agreeable effect. "If we make the best of our life, 
it is but as a pilgrimage, with dangers surrounding it :" better 
thus, " Our life, at the best, is a pilgrimnge, and dangers sur- 
round it.". " We see that we are encumbered with diffi- 
culties, which we cannot prevent:" better, "We perceive 

21g 



233 appendix. (Strength. 

ourselves involved in difficulties that cannot be avoided." 
"It is plain to any one who views the subject, even slightly, 
that there is nothing here that is without allay and pure :" 
improved by this form ; " It is evident to the slightest inspec- 
tion, that nothing here is unallayed and pure." 

We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably 
harmonious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Educa- 
tion ; " We shall conduct you to a hiil-side, laborious indeed, 
at the first ascent ; but else so smooth, so green, so full of 
goodly prospects, and melodious sounds on every side, that 
the harp of Orpheus was not more charming." Every thing 
m this sentence conspires to promote the harmony. The 
words are well chosen ; full of liquids, and soft sounds ; labo- 
rious, smooth, green, goodly, melodious, charming ; and these 
words so artfully arranged, that were we to alter the situa- 
tion of any one of them, we should, presently, be sensible of 
the melody's suffering. 

To promote this harmonious arrangement of words, the 
following general directions will be found of some use. 1st, 
When the preceding word ends with a vowel, let the subse- 
quent one begin with a consonant ; and vice versa, A true 
J Hend, a cruel enemy, are smoother and easier to the voice, 
than a true union, a cruel destroyer. But when it is more 
perspicuous or convenient, for vowels or consonants to end 
one word and begin the next, it is proper that the vowels be 
a long and short one ; and that the consonants be either a 
liquid and a mute, or liquids of different sorts : thus,« lovely 
offspring ; a purer desigix ; a calm retreat : are more fluent 
than, a happy union, a brief petition, a cheap triumph, a pu- 
trid distemper, a calm matron, a clean nurse. From these ex- 
amples, the studentwill perceive the importance of accurately 
understanding the nature of vowels and consonants, liquids 
and mutes ; with the connexion and influence which subsist 
amongst them. 2d, In general, a considerable number of 
long or short words near one another should be avoided. 
" Disappointment in our expectations is wretchedness :" bet- 
ter thus ; " Disappointed hope is misery." " No course of 
joy can please us long:" better, "No course of enjoyment 
can delight us long." A succession of words having the 
same quantity in the accented syllables, whether it be long or 
short, should also be avoided, "James was needy, feeble, 
and fearful :" improved thus, " James was timid, feeble, and 
destitute." " They could not be happy ; for he was silly, 
pettish, and sullen :" better thus ; " They could not be hap- 
py ; for he was simple, peevish, and gloomy." 3d, Words 
which begin alike, or end alike, must not come together ; 

22g 



Strength.) persmcuitt, S»c 239 

and the last syllable of the preceding word, should not be the 
same as the first syllable of the subsequent one. It is not so 
pleasing and harmonious to say, " This is a convenient con- 
trivance ;" "He is an indulgent parent ;" " She behaves with 
uniform formality ;" as, " This is a useful contrivance ;" 
" He is a kind parent ;" " She behaves with unvaried for- 
mality." 

We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, with 
regard to harmony. They should not be too long, nor dis- 
proportionate to each other. When they^ have a regular 
and proportional division, they are much easier to the voice, 
are more clearly understood, and better remembered, than 
when this rule is not attended to : for whatever tires the 
voice, and offends the ear, is apt to mar the strength of the 
expression, and to degrade the sense of the author. And 
this is a sufficient ground for paying attention to the order 
and proportion of sentences, and the different parts of which 
they consist. The following passage exhibits sentences in 
which the different members are proportionally arranged, 

Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says " But his 
pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in 
knowledge, he supplies by sufficiency. When he has looked 
about him as far as he can, he concludes there is no more to 
be seen ; when he is at the end of his line, he is at the bottom 
of the ocean ;' when he has shot his best, he is sure none 
ever did, or ever can, shoot better, or beyond it. His own 
reason he holds to be the certain measure of truth ; and his 
own knowledge, of what is possible in nature." Here every 
thing is at once easy to tb*». breath, grateful to the ear, and 
intelligible to the understanding. See another example of 
the same kind, in the 17th and 18th verses of the 3d chapter 
of the prophet Habakkuk. We may remark here, that our 
present version of the Holy Scriptures, especially of the 
Jpsalms, abounds with instances of an harmonious arrange- 
ment of the words and members of sentences. 

In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall be- 
come sensible of an effect very different from that of the 
preceding sentences. " This discourse, concerning the easi- 
ness of the Divine commands, does all along suppose and ac- 
knowledge the difficulties of the first entrance upon a reli- 
gious course ; except only in those persons who have had 
the happiness to be trained up to religion, by the easy and 
insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous education." Here 
there is some degree of harshness and unpleasantness, owing 
piincipally to this, that there is properly no more than one 
pause or rest in the sentence, falling betwixt the two mem 

23* 



240 appendix. (Figures, 

bers into which it is divided : each of which is so long as to 
occasion a considerable stretch of the breath in pronoun- 
cing it. 

With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, caTe 
should be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unpleasant. The 
following instances may be sufficient to show the propriety 
of some attention to this part of the rule. " Virtue, diligence, 
and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, are 
prosperous in general." It would be better thus : " Virtue, 
diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and pru- 
dence, have ever been found the surest road to prosperity." 
An author speaking of the Trinity, expresses himself thus : 
" It is a mystery which we firmly believe the truth of, and 
humbly adore the depth of." How much better would it 
have been with this transposition : " It is a mystery, the 
truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of which we 
humbly adore." 

In order to give a sentence this proper close, the longest 
member of it, and the fullest words, should be reserved to 
the conclusion. But in the distribution of the members, and 
in the cadence of the period, as well as in the sentences them- 
selves, variety must be observed ; for the mind soon tires 
with a frequent repetition of the same tone. 

Though attention to the words and members, and the close 
of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also be kept 
within proper bounds. Sense has its own harmony ; and in 
no instance should perspicuity, precision, or strength of sen- 
timent, be sacrificed to sound.. All unmeaning words, intro- 
duced merely to round the period, or fill up the melody, are 
great blemishes in writing. They are childish and trivial 
ornaments, by which a sentence always loses more in point of 
weight, than it can gain by such additions to its sound. See 
the Octavo Grammar, on this chapter. 

See also the appendix to the Exercises. 

CHAPTER. IV. 

OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

The fourth requisite of a perfect sentence, is a judicious 
use of the Figures of Speech. 

As figurative language is to be met with in almost every 
sentence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty 
and strength on composition ; some knowledge of it appears 
to be indispensable to the scholars, who are learning to form 
their sentences with perspicuity, accuracy, and force. We 
shall, therefore, enumerate the principal figures, and give 
them some explanation. 

34ff 



Figures.) perspicuity, $'c 241 

In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure from 
simplicity of expression ; the idea which we mean to convey 
is expressed in a particular manner, and with some circum- 
stance added, which is designed to render the impression 
more strong and vivid. When I say, for instance, "That 
a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity ;" 1 
just express my thoughts in the simplest manner possible : 
but when I say, " To the upright there ariseth light in dark- 
ness;" the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style ; 
a new circumstance is introduced ; " light,'' is put in the 
place of "comfort," and "darkness" is used to suggest the 
idea of adversity. In the same manner, to say, ;< It is im- 
possible, by any search we can make, to explore the Divine 
Nature fully," is to make a simple proposition : but when we 
say, " Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord ? Canst 
thou find out the Almighty to perfection ? It is high as heaven, 
what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou 
know ?" this introduces a figure into style ; the proposition 
being not only expressed, but with it admiration and as- 
tonishment. 

But though figures imply a deviation from what may be 
reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not thence 
to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, or un- 
natural. On many occasions, they are both the most nat- 
ural, and the most common method of uttering our senti- 
ments. It would be very difficult to compose any discourse 
without using them often ; nay, there are few sentences of 
considerable length, in which there does not occur some ex- 
pression that may . be termed a figure. This being the case, 
Ave may see the necessity of some attention, in order to un- 
derstand their nature and use. 

At the first rise of language, men would begin with giving 
names to the different objects which they discerned, or 
thought of. The stock of words would, then, be very small. 
As men's ideas multiplied, and their acquaintance with ob- 
jects increased, their store of names and words would also 
increase. But to the vast variety of objects and ideas, no 
language is adequate. No language is so copious, as to have 
a separate word for every separate idea. Men naturally 
sought to abridge this labour of multiplying words without 
end ; and, in order to lay less burden on their memories, 
made one word, which they had already appropriated to a 
certain idea or object, stand also for some other idea or ob- 
ject, between which and the primary one, they found, or 
fancied, some relation. The names of sensible objects, were 
the words most early introduced ; and were, by degrees, ex- 

V 25f 



42 appendix. (Figures. 

tended to those mental objects, of which men had more ob- 
scure conceptions, and to which they found it more difficult 
to assign distinct names. They borrowed, therefore, the 
name of some sensible idea, where their imagination found 
some affinity. Thus, we speak of a piercing judgment, and 
a clear head ; a soft or a hard heart ; a rough or a smooth be- 
haviour. We say, inflamed by anger, warmed by love, swell- 
ed with pride, melted into grief ; and these are almost the 
only significant words which we have for such ideas. 

The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the two 
following. 

First, They enrich language, and render it more copious. 
By their means, words and phrases are multiplied, for ex- 
pressing all sorts of ideas ; for describing even the minutest 
differences; the nicest shades and colours of thought ; which 
no language could possibly do by proper words alone, with- 
out assistance from Tropes. 

Secondly, They frequently give us a much clearer and 
more striking view of the principal object, than we could 
have, if it were expressed in simple terms, and divested of its 
accessory idea. By a well chosen figure, even conviction is 
assisted, "and the impression of a truth upon the mind, made 
more lively and forcible than it would otherwise be. We 
perceive this in the following illustration of Young: "When 
we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment that 
renders it impure and noxious :" and in this instance : " A 
heart boiling with violent passions, will always send up infat- 
uating fumes to the head." An image that presents so much 
congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an 
argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, 
and to induce belief. 

Having considered the general nature of figures, we pro- 
ceed next to particularize such of them as are of the most 
importance; viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metony- 
my, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, Antithesis, 
Interrogation, Exclamation, Amplification or Climax, fyc. 

A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resemblance 
which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied 
to simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a 
comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When I say 
of some great minister, "that he upholds the state like a pillar 
which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make 
a comparison : but when I say of such a minister, " That 
he is the pillar of the state," it now becomes a metaphor. 
In the latter case, the comparison between the minister and 



Figures.) perspicuity, fyc. 24? 

a pillar is made in the mind ; but it is expressed without any 
of the words that denote comparison. 

The following are examples of metaphor taken from 
Scripture : " I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, 
and will be the glory in the midst of her." "Thou art my 
rock and my fortress." " Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and 
a light to my path." 

Kules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 

1. Metaphors, as ivell as other figures, should, on no occasion, 
be stuck on profusely ; and should always be such as accord 
with the strain of our sentiment. The latter part of the fol- 
lowing passage, from a late historian, is, in this respect, very 
exceptionable.. He is giving an account of the famous act of 
parliament against irregular marriages in England. "The 
bill," says he, " underwent a great number of alterations and 
amendments, which were not effected without violent con- 
test. At length, however, it was floated through both hous- 
es on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe 
harbour of royal approbation." 

2. Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is the 
foundation of the metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, not far- 
fetched, nor difficult to discover. The transgression of this 
rule makes what are called harsh or forced metaphors ; which 
are displeasing, because they puzzle the reader, and instead 
of illustrating the thought, render it perplexed and intricate. 

3. In the third place, we should be careful, in the conduct of 
metaphors, never to jumble metaphorical and plain language 
together. An author, addressing himself to the king, says : 

To thee the world its present homage pays ; 

The harvest early, but mature the praise. 
It Is plain, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice 
of an improper phrase, he would have said, 

The harvest early, but mature the crop ; 
and so would have continued the figure which he had begun 
Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employing the 
literal word " praise," when we were expecting something 
that related to the harvest, the figure is broken, and the two 
members of the sentence have no suitable correspondence to 
each other. 

4. We should avoid making two inconsistent metaphors 
meet on one object. This is what is called mixed metaphor, 
and is indeed one of the greatest misapplications of this figure. 
One may be " sheltered under the patronage of a great man : n 
but it would be wrong to say, " sheltered under the mask of 
dissimulation :" as a mask conceals, but does not shelter. 
Addison in his letter from Italy, says : 

rig 



£44 APPENDIX. (Figures. 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when we 
speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no force of 
imagination, can it be supposed both a horse and a ship at 
one moment ; bridled, to hinder it from launching. 

The same author, elsewhere, says, " There is not a single 
view of human nature, which is not sufficient to extinguish 
the seeds of pride." Observe the incoherence of the things 
here, joined together ; making a view extinguish, and extin- 
guish' seeds. 

As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not 
be crowded together on the same object; for the mind has 
difficulty in passing readUy through many different views of 
the same object, presented in quick succession. 

The last rule concerning metaphors, is, that they be not too 
far pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is 
founded, be long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute 
circumstances, we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of 
this stretch of fancy; and we render our discourse obscure. 
This is called straining a metaphor. Authors of a lively and 
strong imagination are apt to run into this exuberance of 
metaphor. When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, 
they are loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so 
long, as to become tedious and intricate. We may observe, 
for instance, how the following metaphor is spun out. 

Thy thoughts are vagabonds ; all outward bound, 

'Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for pleasure ; 

If gain'd, dear bought ; and better miss'd than gain ? d. 

Fancy and sense, from an infected shore, 

Thy cargo bring ; and pestilence the prize : 

Then such a thirst, insatiable thirst, 

By fond indulgence but inflam'd the more ; 

Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. 

An Jttlegoi-y may be regarded as a metaphor continued; 
since it is the representaion of some one thing byanother 
that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We 
may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an al- 
legory, in the 80th Psalm ; where the people of Israel are 
represented under the image of a vine : and the figure 
is carried throughout with great exactness and beauty. 
"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast 
out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room be- 
fore it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the 
land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it: and 

23 S 



Figures.) perspicuity, fyc. 245 

the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent 
out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river 
"Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they 
which pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar out of the 
wood cloth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth de- 
vour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look 
down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine !" Se« 
also Ezekiel. xvii. 22 — 24. 

The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an alle- 
gory, is, that the figurative and the literal meaning be not mixed 
inconsistently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given 
for metaphors, may also be applied to allegories, on account 
of the affinity they bear to each other. The only materiaJ 
difference between them, besides the one being short and the 
other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains 
itself by the words that are connected with it in their proper 
and natural meaning: as, when T say, " Achilles was a lion ;" 
" An able minister is the pillar of the state ;" the " lion" and 
the " pillar" are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of 
"Achilles" and the " minister," which I join to them ; but an 
allegory is, or may be, allowed to stand less connected with 
the literal meaning, the interpretation not being so directly 
pointed out, but left to our own reflection. 

Al'egory was a favourite method of delivering instruction 
in ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables, are no 
other than allegories. By words and actions attributed to 
beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were fig- 
ured ; and what we call the moral, is the unfigured sense or 
meaning of the allegory. 

A Comparison or simile, is, when the resemblance between 
two objects is expressed in form, and generally pursued more 
fully than the nature of a metaphor admits : as when it is 
said, " The actions of princes are like those gjreat rivers, the 
course of which every one beholds, but their springs have 
been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about Je- 
rusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." " Behold, 
how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell togeth- 
er in unity ! It is like the precious ointment, fyc. and as the 
dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion." 

The advantage of this figure arises from the illustration 
which the simile employed gives to the principal object ; 
from the clearer view which it presents ; or the more strong 
impression which it stamps upon the mind. Observe the 
effect of it in the following instance. The author is explain- 
ing the distinction between the powers of sense and imagina- 
tion in the human mind. " As wax," says he, " would not 

V2 &g 



£46 appendix. (Figures, 

be adequate to the purpose of signature, if it had not the 

fiower to retain as well as to receive the impression, the same 
lolds of the soul with respect to sense and imagination. 
Sense is its receptive power ; imagination, its retentive. 
Had it sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, but 
as water, where, though all impressions are instantly made, 
yet as soon as they are made, they are instantly lost." 

In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is con- 
cerned much more than the fancy : and therefore the rules 
to be observed, with respect to them, are, that they be clear, 
and that they be useful ; that they tend to render our concep- 
tion of the. principal object more" distinct ; and that they do 
not lead our view aside, and bewilder it with any false light. 
We should always remember that similes are not arguments. 
However apt they may be, they do no more than explain the 
writer's sentiments, they do not prove them to be founded 
on truth. 

Comparisons ought not to be founded on likenesses which 
are too faint and remote. For these, in place of assisting, 
strain the mind to comprehend them, and throw no light 
upon the subject. It is also to be observed, that a compari- 
son which, in the principal circumstances, carries a sufficiently 
near resemblance, may become unnatural and obscure, if 
pushed too far. Nothing is more opposite to the design of 
this figure, than to hunt after a great number of coincidences 
in minute points, merely to show how far the writer's ingenui- 
ty can stretch the resemblance. 

A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of cause 
and effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. 
When we say ; " They read Milton," the cause is put instead 
of the effect; meaning "Milton's works." On the other 
hand, when it is said, "Gray hairs should be respected," we 
put the effect for the cause, meaning by " gray hairs," old age. 
" The kettle boils," is a phrase where the name of the con- 
tainer is substituted for that of the thing contained. "To as- 
sume the sceptre," is a common expression for entering on 
royal authority ; the sign being put for the thing signified. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; 
a genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; in general, 
when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise 
object meant ; the figure is then called a Synecdoche or Com- 
prehension. It is very common, for instance, to describe a 
whole object by some remarkable part of it : as when we say, 
" A fleet of twenty sail" in the place of " ships ;" when we 
use the" head" for the "person" the "waves" for the "sea." 
In like manner an attribute maybe put for a subject: as 



Figures.) perspicuity, $*c. 247 

" Youth" for the "young," the "deep," for the "sea;" and 
sometimes a subject for its attribute. 

Personification or Pi-osopopoeia, is that figure by which we 
attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The use of this 
figure is very natural and extensive : there is a wonderful 
proneness in human nature, under emotion, to animate all 
objects. When we say, " the ground thirsts for rain," or, 
41 the earth smiles with plenty;" when we speak of " ambi- 
tion's being restless" or, " a disease's being deceitful ,•" such 
expressions show the facility with which the mind can ac- 
commodate the properties of living creatures to things that 
are inanimate, or to abstract conceptions of its own forming. 
The following are striking examples from the Scriptures: 
l * When Israel went out of Egypt, the house of Judah from a 
people of strange language ; the sea saw it, and fled : Jor- 
dan was driven back ! The mountains skipped like rams, and 
the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou sea ! ^ that 
thou fleddest ? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back r Ye 
mountains, that ye skipped fike rams ; and ye little hills, like 
lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the Lord, at 
the presence of the God of Jacob." 

"The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for 
them : and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 

Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating the 
forbidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. 

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 

In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 

Sky low'r'd, and, mutt'ring thunder, some sad drops 

Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. 

The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is supposed to 
prompt the personification of all the objects he beheld, in or- 
der to procure information. 

Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 

And thou enlighten'd earth, so fresh and gay I 

Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 

And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 

Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 

We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, 
from bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified Nat* 
ural Religion : and we may perceive, in the personification, 
the spirit and grace which the figure, when well conducted, 
bestows on discourse. The author is comparing together 
our Saviour and Mahomet. " Gu (says he) to your .Natural 
Religion: lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples, arrayed 
in armour and blood, riding in triumph over the spoils of 
thousands who fell by his victorious sword. Siow her the 

31g 



£48 appendix. (Figures, 

cities which he set in flames, the countries which he ravaged 
and destroyed, and the miserable distress of all the inhabi- 
tants ofthe earth. When she has viewed him in this scene, 
carry her into his retirement ; show her the Prophet's 
chamber ; his concubines and his wives ; and let herhear him 
allege revelation, and a Divine command, to justify his adul- 
tery and lust." 

"When she is tired with this prospect, then show her the 
blessed Jesus, bumble and meek, doing good to all the sons 
of men. Let her see him in his most retired privacies ; let 
her follow him to the mount, and hear his devotions and 
supplications to God. Carry her to his table, to view his 

Eoor fare ; and hear his heavenly discourse. Let her attend 
im to the tribunal, and consider the patience with which he 
endured the scoffs and reproaches of his enemies. Lead her 
to his cross ; let her view him in the agony of death, and hear 
his last prayer for his persecutors ; ' Father, forgive them, 
for they know not what they do.' — When Natural Religion 
has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the Prophet of God ? 
— But her answer we have already had, when she saw part of 
this scene, through the eyes ofthe Centurion, who attended 
at the cross. By him she spoke, and said, 'Truly this man 
was the Son of God.' " This is more than elegant ; it is 
truly sublime. The whole passage is animated ; and the 
Figure rises at the conclusion, when Natural Religion, who, 
before, was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the 
Centurion's voice. 

This figure of speech is sometimes very improperly and 
extravagantly applied. A capital error in personifying ob- 
jects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trifling circumstan- 
ces. A practice of this sort dissolves the potent charm, 
which enchants and deceives the reader : and either leaves 
him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps, his risibility. 

Another error, frequent in descriptive personifications, 
consists in introducing them, when the subject of discussion is 
destitute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared to relish 
them. One can scarcely peruse, with composure, the follow- 
ing use of this figure. It is the language of our elegant poet 
Thomson, who thus personifies and connects the bodily 
appetites, and their gratifications. 

Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst 
Produce the mighty bowl : 
Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 
Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat 
Of thirty years : and now his honest front 
Flames in the light refulgent. 



Figures.) perspicuity, fyc. 249 

It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short met- 
aphors and similes, which also have been allowed to be the 
proper language of high passion, that they are the proper ex- 
pression of it, only on those occasions when it is so far mod- 
erated as to admit of words. The first and highest trans- 
f)orts seem to overwhelm the mind, and are denoted by si- 
ence or groans : next succeeds the violent and passionate 
language, of which these figures constitute a great part. 
Such agitation, however, cannot long continue ; the passions 
having spent their force, the mind soon subsides into that ex- 
hausted and dispirited state, in which all figures are improper. 

apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the 
subject, to address some person or thing ; as, " Death is 
swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O 
grave ! where is thy victory ?" 

The following is an instance of personification and apos- 
trophe united : " O thou sword of the Lord ! how long will 
it be ere thou be quiet ? put thyself up into thy scabbard, 
rest and be still ! How can it be quiet, seeing the* Lord hath 
given it a charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore ? 
there hath he appointed it." See also an extraordinary ex- 
ample of these figures, in the 14th chapter of Isaiah, from the 
4th to the 19th verse, where the prophet describes the fall of 
the Assyrian empire. 

A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck 
the object addressed with affected ornaments ; by which 
authors relinquish the expression of passion, and substitute 
for it the language of fancy. 

Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too great 
length. The language of violent passion is always concise, 
and often abrupt. It passes suddenly from one object to an- 
other. It often glances at a thought, starts from it, and leaves 
it unfinished. The succession of ideas is irregular, and con- 
nected by distant and uncommon relations. On all these 
accounts, nothing is more unnatural than long speeches, ut- 
tered by persons under the influence of strong passions. Yet 
this error occurs in several poets of distinguished reputation. 

The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is 
founded on the resemblance ; antithesis, on the contrast or 
opposition of two objects. Contrast has always the effect, to 
make each of the contrasted objects appear in the stronger 
light. White, for instance, never appears so bright as when 
it is opposed to black ; and when both are viewed together. 
An author, in his defence of a friend against the charge of 
murder, expresses himself thus : "Canyon believe that the 
persun whom he scrupled to slay, when he might have done 

sag 



250 appendix. (Figures. 

so with full justice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, 
with secure impunity ; he made no scruple to murder against 
justice, in an unfavourable place, at an unseasonable time, and 
at the risk of capital condemnation ?" 
The following examples further illustrate this figure. 

Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflovving, full. 

11 If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
stores, but to diminish his desires." 

"If you regulate your desires according to the standard 
of nature, you will never be poor ; if according to the 
standard of opinion, you will never be rich." 

A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form 
of the two las-t examples ; both because it is supposed to be 
the fruit of meditation, and because it is designed to be en- 
graven on the memory, which recalls it more easily by the 
help of such contrasted expressions. But where such sen- 
tences frequently succeed each other ; where this becomes 
an author's favourite and prevailing manner of expressing 
himself, his style appears too much studied and laboured ; it 
gives us the impression of an author attending more to his 
manner of saying things, than to the things themselves. 

The following is a beautiful example of Antithesis. " If 
Cato maybe censured, severely indeed, but justly, for aban- 
doning the cause of liberty, which he would not, however, 
survive ; what shall we say of those, who embrace it faintly, 
pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it when they have much 
to hope, and give it rp when they have nothing to fear ?" — 
The capital antithesis of this sentence, is instituted between 
the zeal of Cato for liberty, and the indifference of some oth- 
ers of her patrons. But, besides the leading antithesis, there 
are two subordinate ones, in the latter member : " Grow 
tired of it, when they have much to hope : and give it up, 
when they have nothing to fear." 

The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of this 
figure, in hiseulogium of the philanthropic Howard. 

" He has visited all Europe, — not to survey the sumptu- 
ousness of palaces, or the stateliness of temples ; not to make 
accurate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, 
nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modern arts ; nor to 
collect medals, or collate manuscripts : — but to dive into the 
depths of dungeons ; to plunge into the infection of hospitals ; 
to survey the mansions of sorrow and pain ; to take the gage 
and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt ; to re- 
member the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the 

lie 



Figures.) perspicuity, fyc. 251 

forsaken, and compare and collate the distresses of all men, 
in all countries." 

The next figure concerning which we are to treat is called 
Hyperbole or Exaggeration. It consists in magnifying an ob- 
ject beyond its natural bounds. In all languages, even in 
common conversation, hyberbolical expressions very fre- 
quently occur: as swift as the wind ; as white as the snow ; 
and the like ; and the common forms of compliment, are 
almost all of them extravagant hyperboles. If any thing be 
remarkably good or great in its kind, we are instantly ready 
to add to it some exaggerating epithet, and to make it the 
greatest or best we ever saw. The imagination has always a 
tendency to gratify itself, by magnifying its present object, 
and carrying it to excess. More or less of this hyperbolical 
turn will prevail in language, according to the liveliness of 
imagination among the people who speak it. Hence young 
people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the language of the 
Orientals was far more hyperbolical, than that oftheEurope- 
ans, who are of more phlegmatic, or, perhaps we may say, 
of more correct imagination. Hence, among all writers m 
early times, and in the rude periods of society, we may ex- 
pect this figure to abound. Greater experience, and more 
cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and 
chasten the manner of expression. 

Hyperboles are of two kinds ; either such as are employed 
in description, or such as are suggested by the warmth of 
passion. All passions without exception, love, terror, amaze- 
ment, indignation, and even grief, throw the mind into con- 
fusion, aggravate their objects, and of course prompt a hy- 
perbolical style. Hence the following sentiments of Satan in 
Milton, as strongly as they are described, contain nothing 
but what is natural and proper ; -exhibiting the picture of a 
mind agitated with rage and despair. 

Me, miserable ! which way shall 1 fly 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? 
Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; 
And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, 
Still threatening to devour me, opens wide, 
To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven. 
The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the 
size of their leader. " I saw their chief," says the scout of 
Ossian, " tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; hia 
shield, the rising moon : he sat on the shore, like a cloud of 
mist on the hill." 

Th? errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arise either 
from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occa- 

S3^ 



£52 appendix. (Figures, 

sions. Dryden, in his poem on the restoration of king 
Charles the Second, compliments that monarch, at the ex- 
pense of the sun himself. 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
It stain'd the duller sun's meridian light. 

This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult to ascertain, 
by any precise rule, the proper measure and boundary of 
this figure. Good sense and just taste must determine the 
point, beyond which, if we pass, we become extravagant. 

Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in 
animated and warm composition. It is produced when, 
instead of relating something that is passed, we use the pres- 
ent tense, and describe it as actuallj' passing before our eyes. 
Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Catiline : " I seem 
to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and 
the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one confla- 
gration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, 
lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The fu- 
rious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with 
a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries." 

This manner of description supposes a sort of enthusiasm, 
which carries the person who describes, in some measure out 
of himself; and, when well executed, must needs, by the 
force of sympathy, impress the reader or hearer very strong- 
ly. But, in order to a successful execution, it requires an un- 
commonly warm imagination, and so happy a selection of 
circumstances, as shall make us think we see before our 
eyes the scene that is described. 

Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, 
is to ask a question : but when men are strongly moved, 
whatever they would affirm or deny, with great earnestness, 
they naturally put in the' form of a questiun, expressing 
thereby the strongest confidence of the truth of their own 
sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the impossibility 
of the contrary. Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak. 
" The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of 
man that he should repent. Hath he said it ? and shall he 
not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it 
good?" 

Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. We see 
this in the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against 
Catiline: "How long will you, Catiline, abuse our patience ? 
Do you not perceive that your designs are discovered ?" — 
He might indeed have said ; " You abuse our patience a long 
while. You must be sensible, that your designs are discov- 
ered." But it is easy to perceive, how much this latter mode 



Figures.) perspicuitt, &c. £53 

of expression falls short of the force and vehemence of the 
former. 

Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions of the mind ; 
such as, surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. "Wo 
is me that 1 sojourn in Mesech, that 1 dwell in the tents of 
Kedar !" Psalms. 

" O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain 
of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the slain of the 
daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness a 
lodging-place of wayfaring men !" Jeremiah. 

Though interrogations may be introduced into ciose and 
earnest reasoning, exclamations belong only to strong emo- 
tions of the mind. When judiciously employed, they agitate 
the hearer or the reader with similar passions : but it is ex- 
tremely improper, and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on 
trivial occasions, and on mean or low subjects. The unex- 
perienced writer, often attempts to elevate his language, by 
the copious display of this fagure : but he rarely or never 
succeeds. He frequently renders his composition frigid to 
excess, or absolute^ ludicrous, by calling on us to enter into 
his transports, when nothing is said or done to demand emo- 
tion. 

Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our 
thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force 
to our observations. Persons may be reproved for their 
negligence, by saying ; " You have taken great care indeed." 
Cicero says of the person against whom he was pleading ; 
"We have great reason to believe that the modest man 
would not ask him for his debt, when ne pursues his life." 

Ironical exhortation is a very agrreeable kind of figure : 
which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing in the 
clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to 
pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beautifully 
described the noise and tumults of Rome, h? adds ironically ; 
" Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome."' 

The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds: 
and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than 
serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not declined 
the use of this figure, on proper occasions. The wise and 
virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his endeavours to 
discountenance vicious and foolish practices. Even in the 
sacred writings, we have a remarkable instance of it. The 
prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of BaaJ to 
prove the truth of their deity, " mocked them, and said : Cry 
aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, 



254 appendix (Figures, 

or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must 
be awaked." 

Exclamations and Irony are sometimes united : as in Ci- 
cero's oration for Balbus, where he derides his accuser, by- 
saying ; " O excellent interpreter of the law ! master of anti- 
quity ! corrector and amender of our constitution !" 

The last figure of speech that we shall mention, is what 
writers call Amplification or climax. It consists in heighten- 
ing all the circumstances of an object or action, which we de- 
sire to place in a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of 
this figure, when he says ; "It is a crime to put a Roman 
citizen in bonds; it is the height of guilt to scourge him; 
little less than parricide to put him to death : what name 
then shall I give to the act of crucifying him ?" 

Archbishop Tillotson uses this figure very happily, to re- 
commend good and virtuous actions : " After we have prac- 
tised good actions awhile, they become easy ; and when they 
are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them. ; and when they 
please us, we do them frequently ; and by frequency of acts, 
a tiling grows into a habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind of 
second nature ; and so far as any thing is natural, so far it is 
necessary ; and we can hardly do otherwise ; nay, we 
do it many times when we do not think of it." 

We shall conclude this article with an example of a beauti- 
ful climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in 
the case of a woman accused of murdering her own child. 
" Gentlemen, if one man had any how slam another ; if an 
adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occasioned 
the death of her enemy ; even these criminals would have 
been capitally punished by the Cornelian law ; but if this 
guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had been mur- 
dered by its own nurse, what punishment would not then the 
mother have demanded? With what cries and exclamations 
would she have stunned your ears ! What shall we say then, 
when a woman, guilty of homicide, a mother, of the murder 
of her innocent child, hath comprised all those misdeeds in 
one single crime ? a crime, in its own nature, detestable ; in a 
woman, prodigious ; in a mother, incredible ; and perpetra- 
ted against one whose age called for compassion, whose near 
relation claimed affection, and whose innocence deserved the 
highest favour." 

We have now finished what was proposed, concerning Per- 
spicuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate con- 
struction of sentences. The former has been considered 
under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and Precision ; and the 
latter, under those of Clearness, Unity, Strength, and the 

3A 



Figures.) perspicuity, $c 255 

proper use of Figurative Language. Though many of those 
attentions which have been recommended, may appear mi- 
nute, yet their effect upon writing and style, is much greater 
than might, at first, be imagined. A sentiment which is ex- 
pressed in accurate language, and in a period, clearly, neatly, 
and well arranged, always makes a stronger impression on 
the mind, than one that is expressed inaccurately, or in a fee- 
ble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this upon a 
comparison : and if the effect be sensible in one sentence, how 
much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made 
up of such sentences ? 

The fundamental rule for writing with accuracy, and into 
which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to com- 
municate, in correct language, and in the dearest and most 
natural order, the ideas which ice mean to transfuse into the 
minds of others. Such a selection and arrangement of words, 
as do most justice to the sense, and express it to most ad- 
vantage, make an agreeable and strong impression. To 
these points have tended all the rules which have been given. 
Did we always think clearly, and were we, at the same time, 
fully masters of the language in which we write, there would 
be occasion for few rules. Our sentences would then, of 
course, acquire all those properties of clearness, unity, 
strength, and accuracy, which have been recommended. 
For we may rest assured, that whenever we express our- 
selves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, there is, 
for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiving 
the subject. Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, 
are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, ob- 
scure, and feeble thought. Thought and expression act and 
re-act upon each other. The understanding and language 
have a strict connexion ; and they who are learning to com- 
pose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, 
are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and . 
order ; a consideration which alone will recompense the 
student, for his attention to this branch of literature. For a 
further explanation of the Figures of Speech, see the Octavo 
Grammar, on this s> ihject. 

si 



ADDRESS 

TO YOUNG STUDEiNTS. 



The Compiler of these elements of the Eng- 
lish language, hopes it will not be deemed in- 
consistent with the nature and design of his 
work, to make a short address to the young 
persons engaged in the study of it, respecting 
their future walks in the paths of literature, 
and the chief purpose to which they should 
apply their acquisitions. 

In forming this Grammar, and the volume 
of Illustrations connected with it, the author 
was influenced by a desire to facilitate your 
progress in learning, and, at the same time, to 
impress on your minds principles of piety and 
virtue. He wished also to assist, in some de- 
gree, the labours of those who are cultivating 
your understandings, and providing for you a 
fund of rational and useful employment ; an 
employment calculated to exclude those frivo- 
lous pursuits, and that love of ease and sensual 
pleasure, which enfeeble and corrupt the minds 
of many inconsiderate youth, and render them 
useless to society. 

Without your own best exertions, the con- 
cern of others for your welfare, will be of little 
avail : with them, you may fairly promise your- 
selves success. The writer of this address, 
therefore, recommends to you, an earnest co- 



ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUr ENTS. 257 

operation with the endeavours of your friends 
to promote your improvement and happiness. 
This co-operation, whilst it secures your own 
progress, will afford you the heart-felt satisfac- 
tion, of knowing that you are cherishing the 
hopes, and augmenting the pleasures, of those 
with whom you are connected by the most en- 
dearing ties. He recommends to you also, se- 
rious and elevated views of the studies in 
which you may be engaged. Whatever may 
be your attainments, never allow yourselves to 
rest satisfied with mere literary acquisitions, 
nor with a selfish or contracted application of 
them. When they advance only the interests 
of this stage of being, and look not beyond the 
present transient scene, their influence is cir- 
cumscribed within a very narrow sphere. The 
great business of this life is to prepare, and 
qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better, by 
cultivating a pure and humble state of mind, 
and cherishing habits of piety towards God, 
and benevolence to men. Every thing that 
promotes or retards this important work, is of 
great moment to you, and claims your first and 
most serious attention. 

If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an ad- 
vancement in knowledge, are found to 
strengthen and enlarge your minds, to purify 
and exalt your pleasures, and to dispose you to 
pious and virtuous sentiments and conduct, 
they produce excellent effects ; which, with 
your best endeavours to improve them, and the 
Divine blessing superadded, will not fail to ren- 
der you, not only wise and good yourselves, 
but also the happy instruments of diffusing 



258 ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 

wisdom, religion, and goodness around you. 
Thus improved, your acquisitions become 
handmaids to virtue ; and they may eventually 
serve to increase the rewards, which the Su- 
preme Being has promised to faithful and well- 
directed exertions, for the promotion of truth 
and goodness amongst men. 

But if you counteract the hopes of 3 7 our 
friends, and the tendency of these attainments; 
if you grow vain of your real or imaginary dis- 
tinctions, and regard with contempt, the virtu- 
ous, unlettered mind ; if you suffer yourselves 
to be absorbed in over-curious or trifling spec- 
ulations; if your heart and principles be debased 
and poisoned, by the influence of corrupting 
and pernicious books, for which no elegance of 
composition can make amends ; if you spend 
so much of your time in literary engagements, 
as to make them interfere with higher occupa- 
tions, and lead you to forget, that pious and 
benevolent action is the great end of your be- 
ing : if such be the unhappy misapplication of 
your acquisitions and advantages, — instead of 
becoming a blessing to you, they will prove 
the occasion of greater condemnation ; and, in 
the hour of serious thought, they may excite 
the painful reflections, — that it would have 
been better for ) T ou, to have remained illiterate 
and unaspiring ; to have been confined to the 
humblest walks of life ; and to have been even 
hewers of wood and drawers of water all your 
days. 

Contemplating the dangers to which you are 
exposed, the sorrows and dishonour which ac- 
company talents misapplied, and a course of 



ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 259 

indolence and folly, may you exert your ut- 
most endeavours to avoid them ! Seriously re- 
flecting on the great end for which you were 
brought into existence ; on the bright and en- 
couraging examples of many excellent young 
persons ; and on the mournful deviations of 
others, who once were promising ; may you be 
so wise as to choose and follow that path, 
w r hich leads to honour, usefulness, and true 
enjoyment ! This is the morning of your life, 
in which pursuit is ardent, and obstacles readi- 
ly give way to vigour and perseverance. Em- 
brace this favourable season ; devote yourselves 
to the acquisition of knowledge and virtue; 
and humbly pray to God that he may bless 
your labours. Often reflect on the advantages 
you possess, and on the source from whence 
they are all derived. A lively sense of the 
privileges and blessings, by which you have 
been distinguished, will induce you to render 
to your heavenly Father, the just returns of 
gratitude and love : and these fruits of early 
goodness will be regarded by him as accepta- 
ble offerings, and secure to you his favour and 
protection. 

Whatever difficulties and discouragements 
may be found in resisting the allurements of 
vice, you may be humbly confident, that Di- 
vine assistance will be afforded to all your good 
and pious resolutions ; and that every virtuous 
effort will have a correspondent reward. You 
may rest assured too, that all the advantages 
arising from vicious indulgences, are light and 
contemptible, as well as exceedingly transient, 
compared with the substantial enjoyments, the 



260 ADDRESS TO YOUNG STUDRNTS. 

present pleasures, and the future hopes, which 
result from piety and virtue. The Holy Scrip- 
tures assure us, that "The ways of wisdom are 
w 7 ays of pleasantness, and that all her paths are 
peace :" " that religion has the promise of the 
life that now is, and of that which is to come :" 
and that the truly good man, whatever may be 
the condition allotted to him by Divine Provi- 
dence, " in all things gives thanks, and rejoices 
even in tribulation." — Some of these senti- 
ments have been finely illustrated by a cele- 
brated poet. The author of this address pre- 
sents the illustration to you, as a striking and 
beautiful portrait of virtue: with his most cor- 
dial wishes, that your hearts and lives may cor- 
respond to it ; and that your happiness here, 
may be an earnest of happiness hereafter. 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below : 
The only point where human bliss stands still ; 
And tastes the good without the fall to ill : 
Where only merit constant pay receives, 
Is bless'd in what it takes, and what n gives ; 
The joy unequall'd, if its end it gain, 
And if it lose, attended with no pain : 
Without satiety, though e'er so bless'd ; 
And but more reiish'd as the more distress'd : 
The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, 
Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears: 
Good, from each object, from each place acquir'd ; 
For ever exercis'd, yet never tir'd ; 
Never elated, while one man's oppress'd ; 
Never dejected, while another's bless'd : 
And where no wants, no wishes can remain 
Since but to wish more virtue, is to gain. — 
For him alone hope leads from gjoal to goal, 
And opens still, and opens on his soul ; 
Till lengthen'd on to faith, and unconfin'd, 
It pours the biiss that fills up all the mind.'* 

THE END 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. — Orthography, 
chap. 1 . Of letters. Pags. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of the letters, and of a 

perfect alphabet. - 7 

2. General observations on the sounds of 

the letters - - - - 13 

S. The nature of articulation explained. 22 

chap. 2. Of syllables, and the rales for 

arranging them. 24 

chap. 3. Of words in general, and the 

rules for spelling them. - 25 
PART II. Etymology. 

chap. 1. A general view of the parts of 

speech. 28 

chap. 2. Of the articles. 31 

chap. 3. Of substantives. 

Sect. 1. Of substantives in general. S3 

2. Of gender. S3 

S. Of number. - 35 

4. Of case. 37 

chap. 4. Of adjectives. 

Sect 1. Of the nature of adjectives, and the de- 
grees of comparison. 40 
2. Remarks on the subject of comparison. 42 

chap. 5. Of pronouns. - - 43 

Sect. 1. Of the personal pronouns. 43 

2. Of the relative pronouns. 44 

5. Of the adjective pronouns. 46 



262 CONTENTS. 

chap. 6. Of verbs. 

Sect. 1. Of the nature of verbs in general. - 50 

2. Of number and person. 52 

3. Of moods and participles. 53 

4. Remarks on the potential mood. - 55 
Sect. 5. Of the tenses. 57 

6. The conjugation of the auxiliary 

verbs to have and to be. 63 

7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in 

their simple form ; with observations 
on their peculiar nature and force. 69 

8. The conjugation of regular verbs. - 73 

9. Observations on passive verbs. - 80 
Of irregular verbs 82 
Of defective verbs ; and of the different 

ways in which verbs are conjugated. 86 

Of adverbs. - y • - 88 

Of prepositions. - - 91 

Of conjunctions. - - 93 

Of interjections. - - 96 
Of derivation. 

Of the various ways in which words 

are derived from one another. 96 

2. A sketch of the steps, by which the 
English language has risen to its 
present state of refinement. 99 

PART III. Syntax. 





10. 




11. 


CHAP. 


7. 


CHAP. 


8. 


CHAP. 


9. 


CHAP. 


10. 


CHAP. 


11. 



Sect. 1. 



Of the syntax of the article. 
Of the syntax of the noun. 

Of several nouns joined by copulatives. 
Of nouns connected by disjunctives. 
Of nouns of multitude. - 

Of one noun governing another in the possessive 
case. - - - - - 

Of the syntax of the pronoun. 

Of pronouns agreeing with their antecedents. - 

10* 



101 
123 

108 
108 
109 

126 



110 



CONTENTS. £63 

Of the relative being nominative to the verb. - 113 
Of the relative preceded by nominatives of different 

persons. - - - - 115 

Of the syntax of the adjective. - 115 
Of the syntax of the verb. 

Of the verb's agreement with the nominative case. 102 

Of verbs active requiring the objective case. - ISO 
Of one verb governing another in the infinitive mood. 1S£ 

Of verbs related in point of time. - 134 

Of the syntax of the participle. - 137 
Of the rules respecting adverbs. 

Of the position of adverbs. - 139 

Of two negatives. _ - . 141 

Of the syntax of prepositions. - 142 
Of the syntax of conjunctions. 

Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses, 

and cases. - - 145 
Of conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, $*c. 146 

Of the syntax of interjections. - - 113 
Of comparisons by the conjunction than 

or as. - - - - - 154 

Directions respecting the ellipsis. - 155 

General rules of syntax. - - 159 

Directions for parsing. - 161 

PART IV. Prosody. 

chap. 1. Of pronunciation. - 169 

Sect. 1. Of accent. 169 

2. Of quantity. - - - - 173 

3. OfemphasiS; - 175 

4. Of pauses. 179 

5. Of tones. 181 

chap. 2. Of versification. - - 182 

Of Punctuation, 

chap. 1. Of the comma. - - 195 



264 




CONTENTS. 




CHAP. 


2. 


Of the semicolon. 


200 


CHAP. 


3. 


Of the colon. 


201 


CHAP. 


4. 


Of the period. 


202 


CHAP. 


5. 


Of the dash, notes of interro- 
gation, exclamation, capi- 








tals, &-C. 


202 






APPENDIX. 





RULES AND OE3ERVATIONS FOR PROMOTING PERSPICUITY 
AND ACCURACY IN WRITING 

PART I. 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to 
single words and phrases. 

chap. 1. Ofpurity. ~- - ' - " 208 

chap. % Of propriety. - - 209 

chap. 3. Of precision. - - 214 

PART II 

Of perspicuity and accuracy of expression, with respect to the 
construction of sentences. 

Of theclearness of a sentence. 218 
Of the unity of a sentence. - 223 
Of the strength a sentence. - 226 
Of figures of speech. - 240 



CHAP. 
CHAP 
CHAP. 
CHAP. 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 



ADDRES3 TO YOUNG STUDENTS. 



254 



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